Using HFACS. Anthony P. Tvaryanas, MD, MPH, MTM. Bill T. Thompson, MA. Stefan H. Constable, PhD, MS. United States Air Force

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U.S. Military Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Mishaps: Assessment of the Role of Human Factors Using HFACS

Anthony P. Tvaryanas, MD, MPH, MTM Bill T. Thompson, MA Stefan H. Constable, PhD, MS

311th Performance Enhancement Directorate United States Air Force

Corresponding Author: Anthony P. Tvaryanas, MD, MPH, MTM Phone: (210) 536-4446 Fax: (210) 536-3683 E-mail: [email protected] http://www.brooks.af.mil

1 The rapid rise in unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) employment has been accompanied by increased attention to their high mishap rates which are several orders of magnitude greater than manned aviation.17,18,19 Such high rates have negative implications for UAV affordability and mission availability.17,19 The Office of the Secretary of Defense’s UAV Reliability Study,17 the most comprehensive review of UAV mishaps to date, reported the proportion of human errorinduced mishaps to be 17% but provided no further breakdown of human factors. Given the limited scope of the UAV Reliability Study human factors analysis, the literature was reviewed for other studies addressing the role of human factors in UAV mishaps. Five studies12,14,21,23,25 were identified which reported prevalences of human factors mishaps 2-3 times that reported in the UAV Reliability Study. While it was hoped a pooled analysis of these studies could provide an aggregate Department of Defense (DoD)-wide look at human factors in UAV mishaps, this was not possible because of the variety of human factors taxonomies employed. Thus, the purpose of this study is to provide a quantitative analysis of the role and patterns of active and latent human failures in UAV mishaps within the U.S. military services using a standardized human factors taxonomy. METHODS This study protocol was approved by the Brooks City-Base Institutional Review Board in accordance with 32 CFR 219 and AFI 40-402. The study design is a 10-year cross sectional quantitative analysis of UAV mishaps using the DoD Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (DoD HFACS)1 version 5.7 taxonomy with associated nanocodes. DoD HFACS is based on Weigmann and Shappell’s HFACS and the reader is referred to their work for a more detailed description of the taxonomy system.26,30 The inclusion criteria for this study were a U.S. Air Force, Army, or Navy/Marine UAV Class A, B, or C severity mishap occurring during fiscal

2 years 1994-2003. Department of Defense Instruction 6055.7 definitions7 were utilized. Site visits were conducted to the respective safety centers for the U.S. Air Force, Army, and Navy/Marines to access all available records and databases pertaining to UAV mishaps. In total, 271 mishaps were identified. However, per OPNAVINST 3750.6R,8 the Navy specifically excludes “unmanned target drone aircraft” from the definition of UAVs in their aviation safety program. To reduce the heterogeneity of the data between the services, all mishap reports pertaining to unmanned target drones were censored from the study. This left 221 UAV mishaps which were submitted to further analyses. Two raters analyzed each mishap independently and classified all human causal factors using the DoD HFACS. After the raters made their initial classification of the human causal factors, the 2 independent ratings were compared. Where disagreement existed, the raters reconciled their differences and the consensus classification was included in the study database. No new casual factors were identified or mishaps reinvestigated. However, in cases where an inference could reasonably be made as to embedded human causal factors based on the mishap narrative, findings, or recommendations, codes were assigned accordingly. Statistical analyses were accomplished using Statistica’s (StatSoft, Tulsa, OK) loglinear analysis and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences’ (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL) chisquare (χ2), Cramer’s V, Fisher’s Exact Test (FET), bivariate correlation, and binary logistic regression.22 RESULTS Of the 221 UAV Class A-C mishaps occurring during the period of fiscal years 19942003, 38 (17.2%) involved the RQ-1 Predator, 127 (57.5%) the RQ-2 Pioneer, 4 (1.8%) the RQ4 Global Hawk, 25 (11.3%) the RQ-5 Hunter, 20 (9.0%) the RQ-7 Shadow, and 7 (3.2%) miscellaneous or unspecified UAVs. Excluding 18 mishaps solely caused by maintenance error

3 which were not analyzed further, 133 (60.2%) mishaps involved human causal factors. The frequency distribution of human causal factors mishaps within the services differed significantly (χ22df = 15.974, P < 0.001) with 79.1% in the Air Force, 39.2% in the Army, and 62.2% in the Navy/Marines. Mechanical failure was present in 150 (67.9%) mishaps, although it was the sole causal factor in only 70 (31.7%) mishaps. In contrast, human causal factors were solely involved in 53 (24.0%) mishaps and 80 (36.2%) mishaps were attributed to the combination of mechanical and human causal factors (FET, P = 0.003). No cause was identified in 18 (8.1%) mishaps. The UAV mishap database was partitioned to distinguish between the services and human causal factors distributions in HFACS, the top-level results of which are summarized in figure 1. Since HFACS is a hierarchical model based on the premise latent failures at the levels of organizational influences, unsafe supervision, and unsafe preconditions predispose to active failures (e.g., acts), the dependent variable in this analysis was acts. Latent failures at the levels of organizational influences, unsafe supervision, and unsafe preconditions were the independent variables. Human causal factors mishaps were explored to verify the presence of independent variables was associated with the occurrence of an act. This was indeed the case for the Figure 1. Top level HFACS human causal factors by military service as percentage of total mishaps

supervision and unsafe

80

Percent (%)

independent variables unsafe

70

Air Force

60

Army

50

Navy/Marines

preconditions. However, 47 (44.8%) human causal

40

factors mishaps involving

30 20

organizational influences did

10

not have an associated act.

0 Organizational Influences

Unsafe Supervision

Unsafe Preconditions

Acts

4 The relationship of organizational influences and acts was further evaluated to explain the apparent deviation from the underlying assumptions of the HFACS model of error. Organizational influences is composed of 3 root categories, resource/acquisition management, organizational culture, and organizational processes. For the Air Force and Navy/Marines, organizational influences was the most frequent type of latent failure and was present in 79.4% and 82.3% of human causal factors mishaps respectively. The services differed significantly in the frequency distribution of mishaps involving organizational influences (P = 0.002), which was largely attributable to the frequency distribution of mishaps involving the resource/acquisition management root category (P < 0.001). Mishaps involving this root category had a significantly higher likelihood of being associated with an electromechanical malfunction (OR 3.2, 95% CI 1.5-6.6) rather than an act (OR 0.2, 95% CI 0.1-0.4) as the active failure. Because of concerns about potential latent failure detection biases caused by differences in individual service mishap investigation methodologies, the mishap database was stratified by service. Service-specific binary logistic regression models were then computed using the 16 root categories of latent failure as potential predictor variables for the dichotomous dependent variable acts. Models were estimated using a forward stepwise method with a classification cutoff value of 0.500. The results are summarized in table 1. The service-specific logistic regression models differed substantially with regards to the root categories of latent error retained in each model. No single root category of latent error was present in all three models. Based on the percentage of acts correctly classified by each service’s model, good models were computed for the Army and Navy/Marine mishap data while only a fair model could be computed for the Air Force mishap data. The breakdown of nanocodes associated with each of the root categories of latent error included in the services’ models are summarized in table 1.

5

Table 1. Root categories of latent error and associated nanocodes by service model. Human-Factors Model Variables Associated Nanocodes† Mishaps‡ Air Force (70.8%)*

79.1%

Technological Environment (P = 0.001) Automation Instrumentation & Sensory Feedback Systems Cognitive Factors (P = 0.009) Channelized Attention Army (93.8%)* Organizational Processes (P < 0.001) Procedural Guidance/Publications Organizational Training Issues/Programs Psycho-Behavioral Factors (P < 0.001) Overconfidence Crew Resource Management (P < 0.001) Crew Coordination Communication Navy/Marines (93.2%)* Organizational Processes§ (P < 0.001)

Inadequate Supervision¶ (P < 0.001)

Planned Inappropriate Operations¶ (P = 0.010) Physical Environment¶ (P = 0.010)

Procedural Guidance/Publications Organizational Training Issues/Programs Risk Assessment - Strategic Ops Tempo/Workload Supervision - Policy Local Training Issues/Programs Leadership/Supervision/Oversight Inadequate Proficiency Ordered/Led on Mission Beyond Capability

Technological Environment§ (P = 0.021)

Vision Restricted by Weather/Haze/Darkness

Cognitive Factors§ (P < 0.001)

Controls & Switches Automation Communications - Equipment

Psycho-Behavioral Factors§ (P = 0.005)

Channelized Attention Cognitive Task Oversaturation Distraction Inattention

47.1% 29.4% 26.5% 26.5% 14.7% 39.2% 45.0% 30.0% 20.0% 30.0% 25.0% 35.0% 20.0% 10.0% 62.2% 34.2% 25.3% 12.7% 6.3% 5.1% 24.1% 11.4% 10.1% 6.3% 11.4% 7.6% 2.5% 10.1% 7.6% 10.1% 3.8% 2.5% 2.5% 19.0% 8.9% 5.1% 5.1% 3.8% 13.9% 11.4%

Complacency *Percentage of acts correctly classified by the service model. † Nanocodes with an absolute frequency < 2 were excluded from the table. ‡ More than one nanocode may have been identified per mishap, so reported model variable frequencies may not be simple summations of component nanocode frequencies. § Component of “workload and attention” factor in refined Navy/Marines model derived from factor analysis. ¶ Component of “risk management” factor in refined Navy/Marines model derived from factor analysis.

6 Given the complexity of the initial Navy/Marine model which contained 7 predictor variables, a factor analysis was conducted to evaluate for redundancy among the predictor variables. Specifically, a principle component analysis was utilized yielding 2 factors. The first factor, which was labeled “work and attention,” encompasses organizational issues regarding the characteristics and conditions of work (ops tempo) and the procedures for doing work (training and formal procedures), the tools for conducting work (technological environment), and the operators allocation of attention in conducting work (cognitive attentional spotlight and motivation to attend to tasks). The second factor, labeled “risk management,” includes situations where squadron supervision failed to adequately identify, recognize, assess, or control and mitigate risks through guidance, training, or oversight, often manifest as operations in physical environments that exceeded the capabilities of mishap UAV operators. Having determined the independent variables most closely associated with acts based on service, the nature of the acts by service was analyzed next. Figure 2 summarizes the root categories of acts (e.g., skill-based error, judgment and decision-making error, misperception Figure 2. Root categories of acts as percentage of total acts by service 100%

error, and violations) as a percentage of the total acts

90% 80%

Violations

70%

Misperception Error

60%

Decision-Making Error

50%

Skill-Based Error

40%

by service. The services differed significantly with regards to the frequency

30% 20%

distribution of acts involving

10% 0% Air Force

Army

Navy/Marines

skill-based errors (Cramer’s

V = 0.246, P = 0.001) and violations (Cramer’s V = 0.193, P = 0.016). The Air Force had the highest frequency of skill-based errors (47.2%), followed by the Navy/Marines (33.3%) and

7 Army (23.1%). Of these skill-based errors, the procedural error nanocode was more frequent in the Air Force and Navy/Marines while the breakdown in visual scan nanocode predominated in the Army. The frequency distribution of acts involving violations was greatest for the Army (34.6%) as compared to the Air Force (8.3%) and Navy/Marines (9.5%). There was no significant difference between the services in the frequency distribution of acts involving judgment and decision-making errors or misperception errors. DISCUSSION Before embarking on a discussion of this analysis of UAV mishaps, it is important to highlight the significant limitations inherent in using mishap reports for data. As noted by Weiss et al29 in their discussion on the analysis of causation in aerospace accidents, filtering and bias occur in mishap reports due to the subjective interpretation of events by both the individuals involved in the mishap and the investigators. The accident model used by investigators also imposes patterns on the mishap and influences the data collected and the factors identified as causative (e.g., detection bias), either narrowing or expanding the consideration of certain factors. Additionally, there is the trend towards oversimplification when one factor is chosen out of many contributing factors and labeled causal despite all factors involved being equally indispensable to the occurrence of the mishap. Thus, mishaps are often attributed to operator error or equipment failure without recognition of the systemic factors that made such errors or failures inevitable. These limitations were present in this study since each of the military services used different accident models and human factors taxonomies in their mishap investigations. The Army’s policy prior to 2003 of investigating UAV mishaps as ground instead of aviation mishaps9 appeared to lead investigators to focus mainly on the last or most conspicuous factor preceding the mishap. The forms used to investigate Army ground mishaps,

8 which often involved “checking the most appropriate box,” had an inherent predilection of narrowing the factors considered. The authors believe these issues biased the Army’s UAV mishap data in favor of factors at the acts, and to a lesser extent, the unsafe preconditions levels. Finally, the military services operate distinctly different UAV systems which cannot be discounted as a confounder when examining differences between the services. For example, Air Force UAV operators fly from a vehicle-centric perspective (e.g., from within the UAV via a nose camera image) while Army and Navy/Marine external pilots fly from an exocentric perspective (e.g., observing the UAV from a position aside the runway). Collectively, these limitations led to the decision to stratify the statistical analysis based on military service, consequently limiting the ability to directly compare the frequency distribution of latent failures between services. However, since active failures (e.g., operator acts) are the traditional focus of mishap investigations, the authors felt their identification in the mishap process was not likely to be significantly skewed by any detection bias and thus were comparable across services. Despite the tendency of mishap reports to focus mainly on the active failures of operator error or equipment malfunctions immediately antecedent to a mishap, a major finding of this study was the predominance of latent failures relatively distant from the mishap at the organizational level. Organizational factors were present in two-thirds of Air Force UAV mishaps and one-half of Navy/Marine mishaps, mainly involving acquisition policies and processes. While organizational factors were only present in one-quarter of Army mishaps, this was felt to be under-representative of the true frequency secondary to the aforementioned aberrances in the Army’s investigative process for UAV mishaps. While some may object to the categorization of mechanical failures as human factors in HFACS, the taxonomy correctly highlighted the latent failure underlying the majority of UAV mishaps. While the UAV

9 Reliability Study17 attributed the majority of UAV mishaps to subsystem component reliability problems which exist in all current operational UAV systems, the Defense Science Board’s UAV study18 found: Many of these early systems were not developed or procured under classical 5000 series acquisition rules. As such, specifications on system reliability were often absent…[Predator’s] propulsion subsystem has caused the vast majority of the system losses that were not combat losses. Predator was first procured in 1995; there was no system reliability specification levied at that time (p. 17).

Using HFACS terminology, the Defense Science Board identified an organizational latent failure in acquisition policies and processes (e.g., the lack of specifications on system component reliabilities), thus echoing the findings of the present study. In short, the excessive numbers of mechanical failures analyzed in the UAV Reliability Study17 were physical manifestations of a recurring latent failure in the acquisitions process. To effectively address current UAV mishap rates and safeguard investments in future UAV systems, the investigational spotlight must move from mechanical failures as the cause of UAV mishaps to failures in the organizational culture, management, or structure of DoD’s acquisition processes for UAVs. Another major finding of this study was the pattern of latent failures predisposing UAV operators to err differed markedly between the services, implying a broad, systemic approach to mitigating UAV mishaps may not be possible. For the Air Force, latent failures at the individual and environmental preconditions level involving instrumentation/sensory feedback systems, automation, and channelized attention were mostly strongly associated with operator error. In short, the ground control station (GCS) environment and the operator vehicle interface do not facilitate Air Force UAV operators. A number of studies have demonstrated that poorly designed automation degrades system performance, especially in multi-task vigilance situations typical of the GCS environment.2,3,16,20 This is a very significant finding given the Air Force is

10 using the same GCS and operator vehicle interface in the MQ-9, its next generation of the Predator. The issue of instrumentation/sensory feedback as a factor in Air Force UAV mishaps raises several interesting points. Certainly compared to pilots of manned aircraft, the UAV operator is relatively sensory deprived, lacking peripheral visual, auditory, and haptic cueing.15 However, the effect of this sensory deprivation has not been well researched. In fact, little is known where UAV operators direct their attentional focus and what information they are sampling. For instance, a study of visual scan patterns using the Predator head-up display (HUD) revealed nonstandard instrument scan patterns.27 Preliminary work with multimodal displays has had mixed to promising results but still needs to be further studied.5,11,15 Interestingly, NASA reported in a summary of their UAV flight test experience6 that incorporating a microphone in the UAV and providing a sound downlink to replicate cockpit environmental noise in the GCS “proved invaluable and potentially saved the UAVs in some instances.” Additionally, they recommended “multifunction switches be limited or eliminated” and the “status of critical parameters should be easily observable.” However, the Predator GCS is heavily reliant on multifunction keys driving a hierarchical system of computer windows. Given sensory deprivation is common to all current UAV operations, it is curious instrumentation and sensory feedback was not closely associated with operator error in the other military services. One possible explanation is experienced pilots (e.g., Air Force UAV operators) are more prone to note the relative sensory deprivation of UAV operations vice the non-flyer (e.g., Army and Navy/Marine UAV operators) who has not developed skill-based habit patterns in association with the multiple sensory modalities present in the flight environment. Nevertheless, the obvious

11 recommendation for the Air Force is to undertake a comprehensive program to evaluate and optimize the GCS with regards to basic human-systems integration principles. In contrast to the Air Force, the errors of Army UAV operators were most closely associated with latent failures at the organizational influences and individual and personnel preconditions levels. The specific latent failures included procedural guidance and publications, organizational training issues and programs, overconfidence, and crew coordination and communication. Based on this evidence, recommendations to mitigate Army UAV mishaps should focus on improving technical publications and checklists and initial operator training programs to include a specific curriculum emphasis on crew resource management. Utilization of a UAV simulation environment capable of facilitating team training, especially in challenging off-nominal situations, would be important in both the initial and recurrent training of Army UAV operators. Barnes et al2 stressed the importance of the latter recommendation in their evaluation of Army external pilots, noting “with experience, the operator is able to devote…attentional resources to future problems while attending to the immediate perceptual and motor tasks in an automatic mode.” The model for Navy/Marine UAV mishaps was the most complex, involving latent failures at the organizational, supervisory, and environmental and individual preconditions levels. This may be a reflection of the Navy’s earlier acceptance of HFACS which would be expected to improve the identification and documentation of latent failures in their mishap investigations. After factor analysis, Navy/Marine UAV mishaps were found to be closely associated with “workload and attention” and “risk management” latent factors. The workload and attention factor included issues of ops tempo, formal training programs and procedures, workstation design, and UAV operator attentional focus and motivation. Interventions for this

12 factor should focus on a thorough job task analysis of UAV operator crew positions with the goal of improving job and workstation design, assessing manpower requirements, and developing empirically- based training programs and formal procedures and guidance. The risk management factor included inadequate supervisory oversight and policies, inadequate supervisory risk assessment with regards to operator capabilities and mission demands, and operations in degraded visual environments (e.g., darkness, weather, etc.). This factor is best addressed by the institutionalization of operational risk management (ORM) at all levels of UAV acquisitions and operations. This is especially true with regards to launch and recovery operations conducted in environments with a paucity of visual references, such as shipboard and night operations. Given prior concerns regarding inadequate aeromedical screening and monitoring guidelines4,12,23,25 and questions raised about the suitability of assigning pilots aeromedically disqualified from traditional flying duties to UAV duties (Landsman G, Nellis AFB. Personal communication; 2004), it is noteworthy there were very few mishaps involving the adverse physiological states category, pre-existing physical illness/injury/deficit nanocode, or the preexisting personality disorder and psychological disorder nanocodes. This finding was consistent with the recent study by Manning et al14 which did not identify any Army mishaps attributable to physical or mental disease or deficits. Although there currently is no uniform standard across the military services for the aeromedical certification of UAV operators,28 which has made formulating a standard for the future aeromedical certification of UAV operators in the National Airspace System (NAS) somewhat problematic, it suggests that the aggregate of the current standards is adequate, at least with regards to “selecting out” aeromedically unsound individuals from UAV duties. Whether current standards can safely be made less restrictive or whether they

13 should be augmented (e.g., neuropsychological testing) to “select in” those with certain innate abilities that might be associated with an increased likelihood of success as a UAV crewmember4,10 has yet to be thoroughly evaluated and is beyond the scope of this study. An unexpected finding of this study was at the level of acts, where the Air Force had a significantly higher proportion of mishaps attributed to skill-based errors. Skill-based errors are essentially errors in basic flight skills and entail highly automatized psychomotor behaviors that occur without significant thought.30 The majority of these skill-based errors were procedural errors where the technique employed by the operator unintentionally set them up for the mishap. There are currently vast differences between the services in the selection and training of UAV operators. The Air Force uses experienced pilots who already have at least one operational tour of duty in another aircraft. By contrast, the Army and Navy/Marines use enlisted personnel who are generally non-pilots and are given a UAV specific training program.4,13,24,28 Although two Air Force studies13,24 have concluded that manned aircraft flying experience is necessary for Predator operators, the study by Schreiber et al24 specifically found by 150-200 hours of flight time, most pilots had developed the skills necessary to learn basic maneuvers and landing in the Predator. Experienced Air Force pilots selected for Predator duty did not perform significantly better on a simulated UAV task than some less experienced groups and experience with the T-1 aircraft (a business class jet) did not transfer well to the Predator. There was also some evidence suggesting experienced pilots may need to unlearn certain aspects of piloting such as dependence on vestibular and peripheral visual cueing, especially during landings. Additionally, their study found a small but significant relationship between the number of lifetime hours playing flight simulation computer games and landing performance. Per this study’s dataset, 66.7% of Predator mishaps involving skill-based errors occurred during landing and 60.0% occurred in

14 training operations. Given the current Predator flight simulator does not accurately reproduce the handling characteristics of the actual vehicle (USAF Safety Center. Predator mishap report; 2004), recommendations include acquiring a simulator with high-fidelity to vehicle handling characteristics to increase operator proficiency or automate the landing phase of flight to eliminate the need for proficiency in the landing skill set. An additional unexpected finding was the absence of a difference between the services in the frequency of mishaps involving judgment and decision-making errors. In short, experienced military pilot/UAV operators made as many bad decisions as enlisted UAV operators without prior military flight training or experience. Also noteworthy is the fact this study found no difference between the services in the frequency of mishaps involving crew resource management. Together these findings contrast with the results from a Predator operator focus group summarized by Hall and Tirre13 where the justification for not utilizing enlisted personnel was the need to quickly and accurately make difficult decisions, effectively communicate those decisions to superiors and subordinates, and be responsible for implementing those decisions. This also challenges the assumption officers, particularly rated pilots, already possess these skills and additional training is not required in their case. Obviously further empirical work is needed to optimize policies regarding future UAV operator selection and training. CONCLUSION This study of UAV mishaps using a validated hierarchical model of human error has identified key recurring factors at the organizational, supervisory, and preconditions levels which need to be addressed in order to make UAVs more viable in the near and distant future. Rather than being the solution to human error, UAVs have instead opened a new and critical chapter in aviation human factors.

15 REFERENCES 1. Aviation Safety Improvement Task Force. Department of Defense human factors analysis and classification system: a mishap investigation and data analysis tool. Kirtland AFB: Air Force Safety Center; 2005. 2. Barnes MJ, Knapp BG, Tillman BW, et al. Crew systems analysis of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) future job and tasking environments. Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD: Army Research Laboratory; 2000 Jan. Report No.: ARL-TR-2081. 3. Barnes MJ, Matz MF. Crew simulations for unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) applications: sustained effects, shift factors, interface issues, and crew size. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 42nd Annual Meeting; 1998 Oct 5-9, Chicago. Santa Monica: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society; 1998. 4. Biggerstaff S, Blower DJ, Portman CA, et al. The development and initial validation of the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) external pilot selection system. Pensacola, FL: Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory; 1998 Aug. Report No.: NAMRL-1398. 5. Calhoun GL, Draper MH, Ruff HA, et al. Utility of a tactile display for cueing faults. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 46th Annual Meeting; 2002 Sep 30-Oct 4, Baltimore. Santa Monica: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society; 2002. 6. Del Frate JH, Cosentino GB. Recent flight test experience with uninhabited aerial vehicles at the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. Dryden Flight Research Center, CA; 1998 Apr. Report No.: NASA/TM-1998-206546. 7. Department of Defense. Department of Defense instruction 6055.7: accident investigation, reporting, and record keeping (2000). Retrieved January 15, 2005, from the World Wide Web: http://www.dtic.mil/whs/ directives/corres/ html/60557.htm 8. Department of the Navy. OPNAV instruction 3750.6R: naval aviation safety program (2003). Retrieved January 15, 2005, from the World Wide Web: http://www.safetycenter.navy.mil/ instructions/aviation/opnav3750/default.htm 9. Director of Army Safety. Clarification of unmanned aerial vehicle accident reporting (2003). Army Message, date time group 041331X Oct 03.

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for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics. Unmanned aerial vehicle roadmap 20022027. Washington: Department of Defense; 2002. Retrieved January 3, 2005, from the World Wide Web: www.acq.osd.mil/usd/ uav_roadmap.pdf 20. Parasuraman R, Riley V. Humans and automation: use, misuse, disuse, abuse. Human Factors 1997; 39(2):230-253. 21. Rogers BM, Palmer B, Chitwood JM, et al. Human-systems issues in UAV design and operation. Wright Patterson AFB, OH: Human Systems Information Analysis Center; 2004 Jan. Report No.: HSIAC-RA2004-001. 22. Rosner B. Fundamentals of biostatistics. 4th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 1995. 23. Schmidt J, Parker R. Development of a UAV mishap human factors database. Unmanned Systems 1995 Proceedings; 1995 Jul 10-12; Washington. Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International; 1995. Arlington: Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International; 1995. 24. Schreiber BT, Lyon DR, Martin EL, et al. Impact of prior flight experience on learning Predator UAV operator skills. Mesa, AZ: Air Force Research Laboratory; 2002 Feb. Report No.: AFRL-HE-AZ-TR-2002-0026. 25. Seagle JD. Unmanned aerial vehicle mishaps: a human factors analysis [Thesis]. Norfolk, VA: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Extended Campus; 1997. 26. Shappell SA, Wiegmann DA. The human factors analysis and classification system – HFACS. Washington, DC: Office of Aviation Medicine, Federal Aviation Administration; 2000 Feb. Report No.: DOT/FAA/AM-00/7. 27. Tvaryanas AP. Visual scan patterns during simulated control of an uninhabited aerial vehicle. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 2004; 75(6):531538. 28. Weeks JL. Unmanned aerial vehicle operator qualifications. Mesa, AZ: Air Force Research Laboratories; 2000 Mar. Report No.: AFRL-HE-AZ-TR-2000-0002. 29. Weiss KA, Leveson N, Lundqvist K, et al. An analysis of causation in aerospace accidents. Proceedings of the 20th IEEE Digital Avionics Systems Conference; 2001 Oct 14-18; Daytona Beach, FL. 30. Wiegmann DA, Shappell SA. A human error approach to aviation accident analysis, the human factors analysis and classification system. Burlington: Ashgate, 2003.

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