Proceedings of the International New Media Conference 2012

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Proceedings of the International New Media Conference 2012

17-19 October 2012

İstanbul Published by www.inm-c.info

ISBN: 978-605-87873-3-9

Program Committee Hononary • Prof. Dr. Yunus SÖYLET-Istanbul University, Rector

Program Chair • Ergün YOLCU, Ph.D., Assoc. Prof.,

Istanbul University, School Of Communication

Editor • Seçkin ÖZMEN, Ph.D., Assoc. Prof.

Istanbul University, School Of Communication

Organization Committee • Ergün YOLCU, Ph.D., Assoc. Prof. , • Seçkin ÖZMEN, Ph.D., Assoc. Prof. • Assist. Prof. Dr. Özgü YOLCU, • Mesut AYTEKİN, Ph.D. Candidate • Süleyman TÜRKOĞLU, Lecturer • Ümit SARI, Ph.D. Candidate • Esma SANCAR, Lecturer

Scientific Committee • Prof. Dr. Paul LEVINSON, Fordham University • Prof. Dr. Haluk ŞAHİN, İstanbul Bilgi University • Prof. Dr. Aslı TUNÇ, İstanbul Bilgi University • Prof. Dr. Aytekin İŞMAN, Sakarya University • Prof. Dr. E. Nezih ORHON, Anadolu University • Prof. Dr. Nilüfer Sarı SEZER, Istanbul University • Prof. Dr. Murat ÖZGEN, Istanbul University • Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ergün YOLCU, Istanbul University • Assoc. Prof. Dr. Seçkin ÖZMEN, Istanbul University • Assist. Prof. Dr. Ebru ULUSOY AKGÜN, Maine State University • Assist. Prof. Dr. Özgü YOLCU, Istanbul University • Assist. Prof. Dr. Alper ALTUNAY, Anadolu University • Assist. Prof. Dr. Hakan UĞURLU, Anadolu University • Assist. Prof. Dr. Handan VİCDAN, Emlyon Business School • Özgür Uğraş AKGÜN, Ph.D., Istanbul University

Web&Page Design: Süleyman Türkoğlu, Lecturer

International New Media Conference 2012 Authors are responsible for the contents of their own papers and also responsible for copyrighted materials in their studies.

Content New New Media and the Resurgence of Direct Democracy / Paul Levinson................ 3 Why Have We Loved Social Media That Much?: A General Look at Social Media Use in Turkey October 17, 2012 / Prof. Aslı Tunç................................................................. 7 Democratic Functions Of The Social Media In A Politically- Constrained Communication Environment: The Case Of Twitter In Turkey / Prof. Dr. Haluk Şahin....................... 9 The Media Convergence: A Discussion On The Potential Of Increasing Competition Of The Traditional Newspapers Versus Online Newspapers Through Quick Response Code / Celalettin Aktas................................................................................................ 13 Data Management In The New Communication Environment / Yrd. Doç. Dr. Cengiz Erdal.......................................................................................................................... 23 The 12th September Referendum in the Social Media in terms of Democracy and New Media / Yrd. Doç. Dr. Derya Erdem....................................................................... 29 Improvement Of Participatory Approach Geographical Information System Interface Design So As To Support Information Sharing For Effective Usage Of Recreation Areas / Esra Bulut Peynirci..................................................................................................... 37 A Critical Review On The Fundamental Orientation Of The Information Society / Res. Asst. Güçlü Güneyi....................................................................................................... 45 The Usage Of “Wireless Telegraph” Twitter As An “Alternative Communication Network” During And After A Natural Disaster: October 23, 2011 Van Earthquake Case / Gizem Parlayandemir................................................................................................... 51 Online Public Relations in the European Union / Iulian Veghes................................. 57 The Use Of Photography In Journalism In The Process Of Technological Advances / Yrd. Doç. Dr. Müge Demir.............................................................................................. 63 Cine-media: Perspectives on Ontological and Methodological Analyses / Mustafa MENCÜTEKİN.............................................................................................................. 73 Digital Media As A New Communication Tool And A New Kind Of Book / Assist. Prof. Nazan ALİOĞLU........................................................................................................... 87 New Structure of Conversation and Being Participative in Cyberspace: Virtual Public Sphere / Dr. Cengiz ERDAL........................................................................................... 93 How The Brands Use The Social Media: A Content Analysis On Twitter / Öğr. Gör. Dr. Özen OKAT ÖZDEM, Doç. Dr. Ayşen TEMEL EGİNLİ, Doç. Dr. Sinem YEYGEL ÇAKIR................. 99 Social Media And The Transformation Of News: The Example Of “Arab Awakening?” / Poyraz Gürson, Serpil Karaaslan............................................................................... .107 Screen based Communication and Surveillance / Dr. Cengiz ERDAL......................... 117 The Communicative Force Of Social Media In The Electronic Age: The Activist Soul Of The Social Media / Doç.Dr. Ayşen TEMEL EGİNLİ, Doç.Dr. Sinem YEYGEL ÇAKIR............... 123 For the International Conference on New Media of the Istanbul University to be held on 17-18 October 2012 National Information Society Building and New Media / Zemfira Maharramli.............................................................................................................. 133 The Role Of New Media Applications To Increase Firm Value / Assoc. Prof. Dr. İclal ATTİLA ................................................................................................................................ 135 A Theoretical Comparison On The Psychosocial Manner Of Modern Man In The Internet / Habibe ÖNGÖREN, Ali Barış KAPLAN.................................................................... 141 Digital Love: Romantic Relationships In Social Networking Sites / Gülüm Şener...... 149 Socio-Cultural Interaction and Networking: An Italian Experience / Sveva Avveduto / Fabio Fornasari.............................................................................................................1 5 3

The Head of Press and PR Departmant of Istanbul University / Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ergun YOLCU..................................................................................................................... 1 5 7

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Keynote Speeches

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New New Media and the Resurgence of Direct Democracy by Paul Levinson From the Keynote Address given by Paul Levinson via Skype at the International New Media Conference at Istanbul University, October 17, 2012 We once lived in a world in which all communication was talking, and anyone could communicate, any time he or she pleased. Unfortunately, that kind of communication only worked among people in physical proximity. The introduction of writing stabilized the process. Infinitely malleable word of mouth was replaced by words fixed on papyrus, parchment, and paper. Democracy became more feasible in this early literate environment, as written laws supplemented and supplanted the mercurial pronouncements of leaders. It arose for the first time, as far as we know, in ancient Athens, where citizens were able enact laws and policy. It was far from a perfect system – the majority people living in Athens, including all women, were for one reason or another not considered citizens – and the Athenian democracy sentenced Socrates to death because of his provocative analyses. But citizens were able to exercise their political will, for better or worse, without intermediaries. The printing press disseminated information to millions of people in the world at large beginning in the 1450s, and became a foundation for representative democracy, or the election of experts –also known as politicians – to enact the will of the people. Newspapers and books provided the potential for an educated public which presumably could vote with some knowledge of the issues. There is an analogy between the workings of printed media and representative democracy: just as authors in the world of print are able to communicate only indirectly to the public via editors who decide whether or not and how to publish the work, so voters in the realm of representative democracy can decide upon policy only by electing representatives who in fact make the policy. The advent of electronic media in the 19th and 20th centuries further concentrated the power of gatekeepers or editors of the news, and supported not only representative democracy but totalitarian government. FDR and Hitler, Churchill and Stalin, each made deftly effective use of radio. And in the second half of the 20th century, television was a mainstay of political action in the USSR as well as the USA. All of that would change in the 21st century, with the advent of media that allowed anyone and everyone to communicate with anyone and everyone in the world, wherever the communicator happened to be.

New New Media Until the advent of blogging in the end of the 20th century, and then Facebook (2004), YouTube (2005), Twitter (2006), and the first smart phone (2007), any person desirous of getting her or his ideas out into the world was at the mercy of an editor or producer. The communicator, in other words, had to be certified or authorized prior to the communication. The rise of the personal computer and the first digital systems available for personal and public use in the 1980s began to change the traditional editorial

(in media) and representative (in politics) regimes. But until the marriage of the Internet to the cell phone - which was the smart phone - the author liberated from editing was still obliged to be in a specific location, usually either home or office, to communicate to the world. This created its own kind of buffer to immediate and unmediated reporting. And until the rise of social media, the opportunities on the Web for placement of unmediated communication were relatively few and far between. I think social media are better described as “new new” media because all media, including newspapers

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and books, have an intrinsically social component. If you read a book and you talk to your friend about the book, that’s a social function. But I see Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter as “new new” rather than “new,” because new media such as Amazon, iTunes, and The New York Times online, by and large still operate via traditional gatekeeping methods. John Q or Mary J Writer cannot put a text or song up on Amazon, iTunes, or The New York Times site at the instant they may want to - and, in most cases, not at all.

Direct Democracy in The Global Village

In other words, in none of those new media does the consumer become a producer. In fact, there’s no difference, from the point of view of the consumer or the reader, in the process of reading the The New York Times online and reading the The New York Times on paper. Indeed, the differences that do exist are differences in the ease with which you can consume that information - you can log on to the The New York Times any time and read it, in contrast to needing to wait until the paper is delivered to your doorstep to read it - but in both of those cases you are still a consumer not a producer.

And the Arab Spring spread to the West, also on the wings on new new media. I first got wind of this more widespread Spring in Barcelona, at the end of May 2011, where I was giving a keynote address about the relevance of Marshall McLuhan and his notion of the global village in understanding The Arab Spring. In the evenings, my wife and I noticed protesters on La Ramba, a main, bustling thoroughfare in Barcelona. I asked my hosts what the protests were about. The economy, perhaps? A controversial political policy or decision? Not really, I was told. The protests were about the inadequacies of the Spanish democratic government itself, and the need for more effective democracy. I was seeing the first stirring of what would come to be known in a few months as Occupy Wall Street or the Occupy movement.

But consider instead any blog that you might be reading online, as a consumer. You can, in most cases, instantly comment on what you are reading in that blog, and you can do more than that, you can just about instantly set up your own blog, where you can write either responses to the blog you were reading or write about something completely different. The process of blogging was one of the first processes in which the consumer became a producer, and although Kindles on Amazon and aggregators that supply content to iTunes are beginning to break through the gatekeepers on those systems, the vast majority of consumers of content on Amazon and iTunes are still no different from consumers of printed books and vinyl records – which is to say, they have no capacity to produce and distribute text or music, which is the sine qua non in the case of text for all bloggers, and now producer/consumers of all other new new media. Consider, for example, Wael Ghonim, whose Facebook page helped trigger the Egyptian part of The Arab Spring in early 2011. Ghonim was a Google employee, but he did not need Google’s or any editor’s or government’s permission or authorization to start his anti-Mubarak Facebook page. He needed only his own initiative. He joined the ranks of a new kind of reporter, and his communiques had more impact on the world than did those of all the duly authorized journalists at the time.

The Arab Spring would reach some 17 countries by 2012, with mixed results. The path of true revolution never did run smooth. But it continues - for example, currently in Syria notwithstanding all the horrible things that the regime there is now doing trying to stop it - and it did succeed to some degree in Egypt and in Tunisia, where new new media played and are still playing a major role.

I began to realize that this was coming from the same source of democracy as the Arab Spring. But it was not something that was being directed against a dictatorship because Spain was, and is, a democracy. And so I was not surprised when the Indignato movement in Spain, in effect, popped up in the United States, where it was known as Occupy Wall Street, and then in many places around the world. Because what was going on, and is still going on, is not a protest against a dictatorship, but, in effect, against representative democracy itself - representative democracy, a form of government in which people do not have direct control over political decisions, in which people are in effect not producers of their political desires or able to actualize their political will. Instead, in a representative democracy, the people elect a tiny fraction of the population – professional politicians - to act on their behalf. And that’s why it is representative democracy which was the not-so subtle target of Occupy Wall Street, and why Occupy Wall Street did not field any political candidates. What is at issue here is the issue of representative democracy itself.

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In the fall of 2011, I was asked to go on a television show on Fox News and talk about Occupy Wall Street. And I was asked questions like “What’s the matter with the people who occupy Wall Street? Why don’t they have a list of demands? What is their top demand?” And I said: “You don’t understand the fundamental communication dynamics of Occupy Wall Street. When you’re asking ‘What is their top demand?’ you are in effect saying ‘What is their lead story?’ Well, that’s from television. Or maybe you’re asking ‘What is the headline?’ Well, that’s from newspapers. But in the global village that has resulted from new new media - from Wikipedia, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, blogging, and the rest - in those media, there is no headline, and there is no lead story, because all the communication is the lead story.” And that is because the consumers have already become producers, insofar as they can select what they want to focus on. This is in addition to producing their own information if they want. But the fundamental decisions made by editors and producers who decide what will be the headline, what’s going to be on the front page of the New York Times, what is the lead story on this newscast - those decisions made by the producers and editors of old media – are now via new new media made by the consumers themselves. Of course, we’re still at the very early stages of this media and political revolution. Some people think maybe it is over, because they haven’t seen the massive demonstrations that we saw last year. I think it’s quite the opposite - that we’re just at the beginning of a very long and profound revolution. Individual governments may change overnight, but changing the nature of democracy itself, as it has been practiced since early modern times, is bound to take much longer. So in fact what we’re going to see is a very subtle and continuing transformation of the very nature of our democratic system itself, of which the Arab Spring and Occupy Wall Street are only the first expressions. And it is going to take time as people begin to realize that they don’t have to wait to read something in the newspaper, they don’t have to wait until they watch something on television, they don’t have to necessarily rely on their elected representatives discuss and debate issues to get things done. Instead, people can write about it, they can talk about it, and digital media can be used to let them express their opinions directly.

The Future Marshall McLuhan wrote in the 1960s that the electronic, non-digital media of his day were transforming the world into a global village. The statement was astutely predictive but not accurately descriptive. There was indeed a new, massive community watching television back then. But this was a national community - in the United States, and the same in other countries - not an international community. It was a one-way community, not a village, in which members could receive information but not generate information or communicate, except to people who happened to be sitting next to them or were in the same offices the next day. What we had in the 1960s and the rest of the 20th century were a series of national villages of viewers - neither global nor a village at all. The people continued to have only the most indirect connection to government - the people could vote once every two or four years for representatives who comprised the government and enacted laws. Tweets, YouTube videos, and Facebook pages changed all of that. Was McLuhan clairvoyant? More likely he was in touch with the profound human need to have an oar in the water, to be in the mix, which new new media accommodated and afforded. Politically, this need is best expressed in direct rather than representative democracy, in which people can make things happen without having to work through proxies. The resurgence of direct democracy facilitated by new new media, like these media themselves, is still in its infancy, and understandably faced with lack of comprehension and misunderstanding, by representative democratic governments as well as traditional media. WikiLeaks has been prosecuted by governments afraid of their secret activities becoming public. These prosecutions miss the point that in a world in which anyone can instantly transmit an eyewitness report or a thought to anyone and everyone else in the world, the very notion of a classified document becomes unworkable and moot. Limiting the readership of a classified document in a world in which it can be so easily disseminated is akin to limiting who among the people already standing in a tiny room can hear someone talk. The traditional gate-kept media are daily under pressure from the new digital wave. Tim Pool, who won acclaim for his continuous 21-hour reporting in Occupy Wall Street, visited my class at Fordham

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University in early 2012. His main advice about news coverage was “we’ve got to get rid of the idea of editing” - by which he meant, the public deserves and now can get an unedited visual transcript of events. Pool does his work with a smart phone, which relays what Pool sees to UStream, a free Internet site available to everyone. But why should we trust Pool to point his phone in the right or truthful direction - why should we trust any new new media report or any digital diplomat? How did we know that Ghonim was telling the truth? The answer is that any one of us, unless we happened to be in Cairo when Ghonim was reporting or in Manhattan when Pool was live streaming, do not. But other people were, and they are the best check for truth and accuracy in reporting and diplomacy. The world at large at long last has a voice, and it can be used not only for initial reporting but correction.

very beginning of the new new media age, the debut of the age of the digital diplomat. The Encyclopedia Britannica announced a few months ago that it would no longer be printing up paper editions; it would just have an online version. But even the online version of the Encyclopedia Britannica consists of articles that are commissioned by the Britannica’s editors and written by experts – it is, in other words, at best a “new medium” not a “new new medium,” and therefore still on the wrong side of media and political history. If the past few years are any guide, the ratio in favor of truth and participation of more people in both media and democracy is only likely to get better.

Several years ago, the number of errors on Wikipedia, whose articles can be written and vetted by anyone, and in the Encyclopedia Britannica, whose articles are by appointed experts, were compared and found, statistically, to be pretty much the same. At the very outset, the communication via new new media was found no more prone to error than communication via a traditional press. With the world at large as Wikipedia’s editors, errors were quickly discovered and corrected. That was back in 2005, in a study conducted by Nature magazine, at the

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Why Have We Loved Social Media That Much?: A General Look at Social Media Use in Turkey October 17, 2012 Prof. Aslı Tunç İstanbul Bilgi University Head of Media School I have been teaching social media course for sophomores for the last three years at my university. I remember very vividly how proud I was, revizing and changing my old mass communication theory course into something cool and revolutionary at the time. It was designed as an interactive course both in-class and online. The students were expected to participate on the Facebook discussions about the readings and tweet about the lecture. This was a mandatory course for all media students and definitely an appealing elective for the other departments. Three years ago, I walked into a large size classroom and asked the students whether they have ever heard of something called Twitter or FourSquare or WikiLeaks. A few hands were raised for Twitter and FourSquare. None for WikiLeaks. When I repeated the same question about the Facebook, a lot more hands were up. Almost none of them had any sort of blogs. And a considerable number had already stopped purchasing the newspapers at a news stand. We all shared a common enthusiasm that year sensing that things would never be the same in the media world and we have been witnessing a digital revolution together in that very classroom. The following year, more of the students were there sitting with their brand new smart phones in their hands. Besides the rise in number of the Twitter use, they were complaining that their parents and relatives had eventually discovered Facebook and tracking down every move they had in their private lives. They were making nasty plans to block or limit the access of their nosy parents and relatives. WikiLeaks was on the International agenda, even some of them already had a crash on Julian Assange. So things were changing rapidly. The only thing that was staying intact was their not purchasing the hardcopy newspaper. This year, however, debates surrounding social media sounded so elementary to the students that I had to assign them really difficulty scholarly articles. Almost all of them were bloggers, talking about

new tools and applications for citizen journalism or new tactics to change the settings to bypass the Internet censorship. I was finally teaching to true digital natives. This little personal example might not point out a scientifically representative sample but it definitely tells something to us about the development of social media in Turkey. There is a vibrant community of internet users in the country. The number of users rose from 26.5 million in 2008 to approximately 37 million as of 2012. Turkey has 32 million Facebook and 7 million Twitter users. As the Facebook demographics, the largest age group is currently 18 - 24 and followed by the users in the age of 25 - 34. Turkey now ranks 4th in Facebook and 11th in the world for Twitter use. The total number of mobile phone subscribers is 66.14 million corresponding to an 88.5 % penetration rate as of June 2012. On the other hand, 3G services commenced in July 2009, with the number of 3G subscribers having exceeded 37,7 million as of June 2012. The number of broadband subscribers has shown a significant increase in recent years, and the penetration rate, at 3.71% in 2005, had reached 10,3 % in the second quarter of 2012. Those numbers don’t tell us anything unless we see substantial social and political consequences though. In my opinion, there is a close link between the explosion in social media use among young population and the country’s poor record on press freedom. Turkish mainstream media’s inability and fear to cover certain issues and citizens’ democratic need to get informed made social media a powerful rival to big media companies. Self-censorship and self-policing by television channels and newspapers resulted with the society’s reacting to these news outlets, so turning to other forms of news gathering. Country’s increasing tech-savvy young population ended up acting as journalists themselves and trying to get the information out.

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Inspired by the role of Twitter in exposing the silence of the traditional media, many people tried shedding a light on the ignored issues. They tweeted inside the courthouses while controversial politically-motivated trials were going on and while no journalists dared to write about them. On the night of December 29, 2011, the Turkish military launched an airstrike along the Turkish-Iraqi border against what it believed to be terrorists but killed local villagers engaged in smuggling cigarettes. This grave mistake left 35 individuals dead, many of them teenagers. Social media played a crucial role in relaying news of the tragedy to the outside world in the midst of veil of secrecy. Within hours, local Kurds had posted graphic photos of the victims on Twitter, statements from family members followed soon afterwards. On the other hand, however, mainstream Turkish media didn’t start providing coverage until hours later after a press briefing from Army officers. Of course, not everything is that rosy in terms of the use of social media as citizen journalism. In such a polarizing atmosphere, the manipulation of news, the distribution of false reports and hate speech on social media is a growing concern. So far it is unclear whether social media widen or narrow this ethnic, religious, social and political split in the country. What is clear is that social media can be a powerful and unifying tool for those who know how to use it. The best example for this is Twitter and Facebook’s effective role in organizing masses of people for a cause. On October 23, 2011, a devastating earthquake with a magnitude of 7.2 struck Van causing a total of 366 dead and thousands of injured. More than 2,200 buildings were destroyed, many of them in the worst-affected zone near Erciş. Immediately after the disaster, hashtags such as #van and #deprem (the Turkish word for “earthquake”) became trending topics on Twitter. People tweeted constantly both to locate their loved ones as well as to share relief. Groups like the Red Crescent used click donation services, and Facebook has updated its information on aid requests to include items such as insulin and diapers. A successful social media initiative came from Ahmet Tezcan, a reporter with 16, 000 followers. He offered his spare apartment to a family in need, and he tweeted about it, encouraging others to do the same. Within hours, over 15, 000 people had emailed to the “my house is your house” campaign, offering people space in their homes or spare rooms. In a similar attempt, Erhan Çe-

lik, another journalist received 17,000 e-mails just a few hours after his outcry for help for earthquake victims. Facebook also played a role, with users sharing emergency phone numbers and starting pages giving instructions on where to deliver aid, some of which was being delivered free of a charge by freight companies. Those were all inspiring and promising signs what Twitter could be capable of. While social media cannot offer a long term solution, it can well present an effective short term strategy to distribute information and support during a time of crisis. Last year students in my social media class sent me a Facebook invitation to join a protest against censorship under the name “İnternetime Dokunma” (Don’t Touch my Internet). Perhaps for the first time I have seen those young people so reactionary since they had believed that new legislative measures would threaten their online freedom of expression and allow authorities to monitor and limit their activities. It was very obvious that something very political had actually touched their lives. They were skeptical about the law believing the filters are akin to wiretapping and allow country’s Internet regulator to determine what content users may access and to expand its list of prohibited websites. I thought they had a point since in the initial version of the law, Turkish High Council for Telecommunications (TIB) had issued a list of 138 keywords that Internet Service Providers must ban from the Internet—a mandate that would allow Turkish authorities to censor and suppress certain websites because of a few prohibited words. Thank God, this measure was abandoned although as of today, 20,721 sites seemed to be suspended by the authorities, either by court order, or by decision of Information Technologies and Communications Authority (BTK). Last year, we walked in that protest side by side with my students who were taking my social media course. We all chanted for a more democratic participation online and at the same time we tweeted about the demonstration in excitement. One of my students leaned towards me and whispered to me ear, “professor, this is best course ever.”

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Democratic Functions Of The Social Media In A Politically- Constrained Communication Environment: The Case Of Twitter In Turkey Prof. Dr. Haluk Şahin Istanbul Bilgi University

The indispensability of free and independent media of communications in a democratic society is primarily defended on the basis of the presumption that democracy requires an informed populace, or at least, an informed electorate. Ignorance and apathy of the citizenry are seen as serious impediments, potentially leading to the degeneration of the system into an autocracy or populist despotism. In this context, we can see why the way the media performs its “democratic” functions is viewed as an index -- perhaps the principal index – of democratic governance in a country. I am of the opinion that the debate concerning the “quality” of media performance is tantamount to a debate on the quality of democracy as a whole. But how do we gauge the quality of media performance in a democratic society? One way of doing it may be looking at it in terms of the functions attributed to the media in a democratic society. If we can agree on these functions and evaluate the level of performance on each one, then we can come up with a composite notion of overall performance. Upon reviewing the related literature, I was able to discern five major “democratic” functions for the media: The media as: 1) A provider of news and information: Abundance, timeliness, accuracy and fairness are some of the expected attributes. 2) A provider of a forum for commentary and interpretation: Scope, divergence, depth and pertinence are among the required attributes 3) A provider of investigative reporting: A capacity to act as “watchdog” over the–powers-that-be. Independence, courage, persistence are mentioned as requisites. 4) A provider of a platform for public discussion and debate: A capacity for pluralistic public sphere related activities. Openness and accessibility are some of the desireable attributes. 5) A provider of a proactive public agenda: A capa-

city for searching and presenting a comprehensive agenda of the society. Alertness, precision and a sense of social responsibility are required to go into the production of the agenda. 6) A media system that does a good job on all five on these dimensions denotes a well-functioning democracy. And, inversely, a deficient democracy will make the fulfilment of all or some of these functions difficult -- which can also be the consequence of media malfunctions, adjoining the two in a chicken-or-egg like proposition. The specific question I would like to explore in this presentation has to do with fate of these functions during the rise of the social media and especially Twitter. There has been a great deal of concern as to whether these functions long associated with the traditional media can be or will be transferred to the social media and if so what will happen to them. How suitable are the new media in providing the services required from the traditional media outlets, including newspapers, magazines, and television? What is to be lost – or gained – as a result of the migration to the digital domain? I will make an attempt to answer these questions, at least partially, in light of the experiences of Turkey which is categorized as a hybrid regime by outside observers such as the Economist Intelligence Unit during the past five years (2007-2012) A hybrid regime is one where the requisites of a full liberal democracy are only partially met or are seriously flawed. There seems to be a consensus among political scientists that these requisites are: 1) free and fair elections, 2) rule of law, 3) separation of powers and 4) the protection of basic liberties such as freedom of speech and the press, freedom of assembly, religion and property. International watchdog organizations such as Journalists Sans Frontier and Committee to Protect Journalists have criticized Turkey for being one of the major violators of press freedom in the world despite its democratic pretentions. Their reports have also pointed to the fact that due to governmental pressures many journalists have lost their jobs and an atmosphere of intimidation leading to severe self-censorship has descended upon

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the Turkish media. But, in the meantime, the use of the social media has expanded, becoming a factor in this constrained communication environment. Starting from these realities, our initial question can a be formulated as “How does the increasing weight of the social media in the communications environment affect the performance of democratic functions by the media?” The question, obviously, implies the possibility that the emerging media may in fact provide new opportunites for bypassing the hurdles imposed upon the conventional media, creating hitherto unexisting channels and freedom spaces. Either way, the Turkish experience of the past few years is worth a look at a time when the social media is expanding all around the world. What follows is an account of preliminary observations about the ways the above mentioned functions are affected by the new media and especially Twitter. 1) A provider of news and information: The new media and especially Twitter has proven on a number of occasions how fast and powerful it can be as the initator of the news cycle. Clearly, its role as a newsbreaker is unrivalled. There are usually people with smart phones in places where important, newsworthy things are happening and in many instances they are the ones who sound the first alarm. The conventional media usually joins later and the normal news cycle srarts to unfold. But, we know from the Turkish experience that there are times when the conventional media is too timid or constrained to do its job in the cycle. As a result, there are gaps, comparatively long periods of silence, between the time when the first alarm is sounded by Twitter and the moment conventional media enters the picture. I call these silences “news vacuums”. Having heard the first alarm from Twitter, people run to conventional media sources for confirmation and further information. When they can’t find anything they rush back to the social media trying to figure out what is really going on and also why the big media is not covering it. The traffic on Twitter increases exponentially as people’s need for information is provoked. There were two such major news vacuums in Turkey last year. The first one took place during the last days of 2011 when Turkish warplanes bombed Kurdish smugglers, killing 36 of them, in a town officially

called Uludere on the Iraqi border. The second occured in the aftermath of a big explosion at an ammunition depot in the west/central Anatolian town of Afyonkarahisar in September. In both instances the mainstream media did not touch the story for many hours waiting for the “go ahead” signal from the authorities, while the internet news traffic on the event skyrocketed. Thus, it became clear that in todays’s social media rife environment, it is impossible to hush up major stories. People stick to the social media, and especially Twitter, upon realizing that the old media is not providing information. As a result, it becomes the main source of news and information. Inevitably, it also becomes a source of rumor, speculation, and misinformation. İn other words, this vacuum poses problems for crisis managers. The social media becomes the major rumormonger at times like these. Yet, luckily, it also has its own self-corrective mechanisms in the shape of rebuttals, cutting the life of wild rumors short: Other people who know better get online to dispel the fallacious information or ungrounded speculation. Twitters role as a news provider is not confined to news vacuums. The medium has been used to call attention to less sensationalistic stories that are not being covered by the big media as a result of their timidity or self-censorship or other reasons. Obviously, in a hybrid regime, the social media is called upon to fill gaps. In Turkey’s constrained communication environment Twitter has also been used for providing coverage from restricted places such as court rooms. For instance, the trial of the Oda TV journalists was covered “blow by blow” from the coutroom by a number of Twitter friendly reporters. Similar coverage is being provided by student groups interested in the news dissemination capacities of the social media on a more regular basis. 2) A provider of a forum for commentary and interpretation: A brief tour of Twitter content in 2012, in my opinion, would quickly reveal an ideological terrain much more diversified and pluralistic than the mainstream Turkish media. It is obvious that Twitter provides space for opinions that cannot be aired in the old media for legal, pofessional or ideological reasons. The spectrum of debate appears to be much broader and pluralistic in the world of tweets. It is able to provide space to the most marginal views. This does not mean it is totally free – and, in fact, may be becoming less so with every passing month: The world famous pianist Fazil Say fo-

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und himself charged with of a crime reminiscent of blasphemy for retweeting a tweet containing verses from a Omar Khayyam poem this year. It should also be acknowledged that Twitter was the tool-of-choice for dozens of journalists and columnists who lost their jobs as a result of direct and indirect governmental pressure. Thanks to the social media they were able to continue voicing their opinions on matters of national importance even though they no longer had columns or bylines in the traditional media. Some of them were able to attract many thousands of followers on Twitter, in some cases more than the number of readers they had with their former employers. The traditional media has often provided interpretation indirectly by means of the frames in which news events are placed. These frames are highly consistent at a given period. Offering counter frames against the hegemonic discourse is obviously something Twitter can be very good at, as evidenced in Turkey’s deeply polarized political envirenment. Counter or alternative frames are mind expanders very much in need for healthy discussions even in the least constrained political environments. While the great majority of messages posted to Twitter merely reinforce existing frames, the few that don’t can prove to be eye openers of enormous importance. There have been such eye opening moments last year especially concerning the conduct of foreign policy in the Midddle East. 3) A provider of “watchdog” content, or investigative reporting: Political constraints are most acutely felt in media’s watchdog functions, i.e. the provision of investigative reporting, and Turkey of late is a case in point. There has been a scarcity of investigative stories in the traditional media outlets over the past decade. Twitter with its 140 character limit is not suited for in depth investigative reporting, but can be a good place for whistle blowers who will call attention to signs that something fishy is going on behind closed doors.. There have been some examples of such whistle blowing on Twitter especially in the area of human rights reporting. Turkish investigative reporters are yet to discover the full capacity of the new media as tools for investigative news gathering. 4) A provider of public platform for discussion and debate: Even though Facebook was adopted by most Turks as a tool of social interaction , Twitter became po-

pular among the country’s intellectual elites and those aspiring to join them primarily because of its discussion and debate function. It provided them with a source of information and analysis not available elsewhere and granted them access to opinion leaders shunned or ignored by the traditional media. This ability is also important for its cathartic outcomes, the sense of relief coming from unburdening ones’s chest, at a time of political tensions. Here was a medium in which people could still cry out their frustrations and complaints. There is another, uglier side to the story: There were instances when debates bordered on hate speech and racism as well as obviously orchestrated attacks on certain people. It became clear that Twitter, like all other media, can be a double-edged knife. 5) A provider of proactive public agenda: What I mean by “proactive public agenda” is a national agenda produced through the active monitoring of society by the journalists -and not the passive agenda imposed by others, especially the political and commercial interests. In this perspective, the media is obliged to break out of the structural constraints it is forced to operate in whether they be economic, regional, religious, ethnic or ideological and sincerely try to become the voice of the people – all the people. As such, it is expected to perform the job of an early detection system identifying problems before they barge on the national agenda in the form of disasters and scandals. For journalists interested in developing such a proactive agenda, the social media and Twitter can be a an invaluable source of raw information. The traditional media has used Twitter as a source mostly for celebrity scandals and political gaffes, but it is time to recognize that there is much more in the torrents o messages flowing in the social media channels that can be useful even in a politically constrained communication environment. These preliminary observations concerning the democratic functions of the new media in Turkey suggest that the social media has already become a force to be reckoned with in Turkey’s hybrid democracy. It has demonstrated a potential for bypassing constraints imposed on the traditional media outlets and spreading news and ideas.

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Proceedings

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The Media Convergence: A Discussion On The Potential Of Increasing Competition Of The Traditional Newspapers Versus Online Newspapers Through Quick Response Code Celalettin Aktas Associated Professor, Ph.D. Istanbul Commerce University Faculty of Communication Department of Media and Communication Systems [email protected] ABSTRACT

Developments in new information and communication technologies have not only profoundly affected social life, they have also caused a transformation in traditional media. Traditional newspapers are the media format most affected by this transformation, with both newspaper production processes and media consumption trends being influenced. As a result of traditional media’s difficulty in competing with new information and communication tools, traditional newspaper circulation has steadily decreased, and many long-standing newspaper companies have been run out business. In order to maintain their respectability and position in the community and to retain their assets in the face of new information and communication tools, traditional newspapers may choose to propose a brand new newspaper experience: an interactive newspaper using ‘Quick Response Code (QR Code)’. The aim of this paper is to examine the question of whether or not traditional newspapers may be able to compete with online newspapers via the use QR Code. Key Words: QR Code, quick response code, traditional newspapers, mobile Internet, smartphones, online newspapers. INTRODUCTION The developments in information and communication technologies, as well as traditional media profound effects on social life and led her to a transformation process. The internet, which is the most important communication tool of our time had been quickly spread on a global scale in a short period and deeply shaken the position of traditional media in the social life. At the UNESCO meeting of the specialists (Burgelman, 1994, p. 193) in 1986, the clear lines of the differences between the Internet, via its technological features and the considered traditional media, television, radio and the press technology-based products (quoted in Timisi, 2003, p. 80) has been eliminated. Mrs. Vuslat Dogan Sabanci, who is the Chairman of the Board of Directors of The Hurriyet Press Inc. had evaluated the developments in the media sector (Guler, 2012, March 18) as “The media in the future, both in Turkey and in the world is the Internet. But how is the Internet or which of the Internet, this is the important point. In nowadays, the television, radio, Internet, newspapers, magazines, which we call the social media, are intertwined. The thick walls between the channels are no longer stood, there is not a single channel ...”that she refers to the views.

By the power of the Internet and the digital technologies, the television, radio, newspapers and all the other media channels had began to converge on each other. The specific content of each media channel had been integrated by blending into telecommunications and computer systems. Thus, the sound, video, animation, text, and the image, as well as, all types of the media contents has become transferrable over the Internet via a single communication channel. On the traditional media environment the audio, video and the text communication contents, which were different from each other were using some different infrastructures and being transported independently from each other (Blackman, 1988, p.174). A media (Atabek, 2005, p. 74) which is called the Internet, have the ability to bring together the radio, newspaper, television and think of all the other media types, in a single package had spread rapidly in our social life. The radio took thirty years to reach to sixty million people in the United States, and the television took fifteen years to reach to that level of diffusion. However, the Internet, due to The World-wide computer network was able to do so, in the three years time following the development of the network of computers (Castells, 2000, p. 382). According the figures of the United Nations which had been shared with the

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public by the end of 2011, the worldwide number of Internet users is an indication of how much more quickly the Internet had been spread out since 1990s to the present day. The United Nations has announced that by the end of 2011, there are some 2.3 billion people, in The World, that are using the Internet and the number of the mobile Internet users are nearly half of the total number of the Internet users which is about 1.1 billions (Kulabas, 2012, p.12). In particular, the traditional newspapers, were the most affected media types from this rapid developments in information and communication technologies. The traditional newspapers, were unable to compete with the new information and communication tools as a result of declines in the newspaper circulation figures and began to appear significant or even a large number of the old and traditional newspapers companies which were in the publishing life for many years were forced to withdraw from the media life. The famous British newspaper, The Financial Times, for the first time in her 124 years of publishing life had announced that the number of digital subscribers had exceeded 300 thousand and the number of subscribers of the newspaper’s were left behind down (From FT, 2012). The 146-years history, ‘The Seattle Post-Intelligencer’ on December 17, 2009 as the printed newspaper was the last time distribution and than become a completely online publication; the 150-year-old Colorado’s oldest newspaper, the ‘Rocky Mountain News’ publication in 2009, withdraw from the life; the 100 years ‘Christian Science Monitor’ newspaper in 2009, was the first international online (Sharp and Kaytazaoglu, 2010, p. 32). The Australia’s oldest news magazine ‘The Bulletin,’ due to falling circulation and then closed after 128 years (Australia, 2008).

content (Pavlik, 1997, p. 30-36). The news sites in Turkey during the 1990s years were (Soyturk, 2008, p. 77), belonged to the printed newspapers as the published and printed newspaper organizations and can be defined as a copy of the online environment consisted of the news sites. Over time, the traditional newspapers, with the Internet using on their technological features, the newspapers were being published as online content, by making compliance with the requirements of this technology and began to offer to the Internet users. On the other hand and despite of all the efforts of the traditional newspapers, they couldn’t beat the kind of falling in their circulations. The use of the Internet and the widespread use of the mobile devices connected to the Internet with various types, the individual’s trends towards media consumption had began to shift from one environment to another environment. A study had been carried out by (Newspapers, 2009), The Pew Research Center for the People & the Press (PEW), that a small number of Americans read printed newspapers in order to obtain news in the United States and revealed that many more Americans resort to the Internet for the same purpose. The PEW’s, the ‘News Media Consumption Survey’s’ which was realized in 2008 showed that on the readers of the printed newspaper has determined that the rate fell to 25% from 34%, between 2006- 2008 years (Newspapers, 2009). Thus, the location of the traditional newspaper readers were Internet users. The longer time spent on the Internet, is the time allocated decreased proportionally from the read of the printed newspapers. Therefore, the Internet users to be aware of what is happening in the national and international arena, online newspapers, online publishing pages and uses a variety of platforms that happened.

This event which is taking place in the traditional media, especially in newspapers, have made an obligation to enter into a new conversion. In order to survive, the traditional newspapers, had entered into new searches against the new information and communication tools. In the 1990s, during the early years of the Internet, the traditional newspapers had carried out the identical copies of their newspapers to the readers by the online media. A large number of articles published in the news site, such as the traditional printed newspapers were published (Kenny, Gorelik and Mwangi, 2000). The new sites which are not more than the fingers of one hand especially designed for the Web as a new medium of communication has included original news

At this point, the traditional newspapers, in order to increase the circulation or at least to be in the social life, may maintain the ‘Quick Response Code (QR Code-Quick Response Code)’ and can provide an interactive newspaper by using the pages of newspapers and make a brand new experience available to the newspaper readers. Thus, may be offered a hybrid opportunity to access to a communication tool for the Internet users as well as the traditional newspaper readers. The individual, who is changing the environment on the online media consumption trends, may have gain new experiences in a combination of the new features and may have a new media product as well as can experience the traditional newspaper. The QR code; is a matrix bar code

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which has the ability to create interactive environments of the smartphones, digital content with traditional newspapers published content by connecting to each other. Thus, the QR code, is offering to the users of the laptops or the desktop computers by using the indirect content is accessed through hyperlinks, to the smart phones and offers the possibility of immediate access to information directly and without being bombarded. The technology and information compared to restore access to digital information may be thought to alter the culture by the QR code (Baik, 2012, p. 434). The purpose of this study is to seek answers to the question of whether the traditional newspapers may have a competitive advantage over the online newspapers by means of the quick-response code. This discussion is primarily based on the ‘Quick Response Code’ technology, with emphasis on the basics of this technology will be established relationship with traditional newspapers. Later the examples of the use of quick-response codes on the traditional newspapers, would the QR code using traditional newspapers be expose superiority against the online newspapers or not. THE QUICK RESPONSE CODE The QR code, is developed and implemented for the first time as a two-dimensional bar code by the Japanese company Denso-Wave in 1994. The QR code is consists of black modules regulation in a square pattern which had been located on a white background. This is, initially, was used in the production of automobile parts, such as a bar code label and to follow up the orders and in nowadays is used in many different branches of the industry. The current use of the QR codes, are spread over a wide area from follow-up systems to commercial entertainment, from product marketing to the use of instore product labels. The QR codes may be placed in different media like in newspapers, magazines, banners, posters, such as communication tools and for all kinds of printed items as Web pages (Okazaki, Li and Hirose, 2012, p. 102). The popularity of the QR codes is growing in throughout The World, especially in Japan, Korea and the United States (Shin, Jung and Chang, 2012, p. 1417-1426). The QR, corresponds to the first letter of the words of; ‘Quick Response’. The QR Code is a matrix code which developed and easily interpreted by browsers as a symbol for the basis is available. The purpose of the development of the QR code is for easy

to be read by the browsers provide (Arslan, 2011, p. 78). The QR code is designed to perform the contents to be decoded quickly (Jupiter, 2011). In fact, to decode the QR code scanners may occur within seconds. A barcode is created in the classical sense, ‘1 D (one dimensional)’ (figure-1) contains information in a single direction code, however, the QR code (figure-2) includes both, the horizontal and vertical direction, of the information. If the QR code is compared with the 1D code, we may recognize that the QR code has pretty high of handling data capability. The 1D code data of the character is typically between 20 and 40 hold (Hampton, Peach and Rawlins, 2011, p. 75). The QR code storage capacity will vary depending on the type of data used. The QR code may store 7089 character of the numeric data and 4296 data which are not numeric characters and 2953 bytes (binary 8 bits) and the 1817 Japanese Kanji characters / symbols in the blood. The QR code’s an error correction system is another important feature. An important value of the code is the data can be repaired even if it is damaged due to of a significant amount of pollution, to reasons such as low-quality computer printouts or even corrupted. The QR code may contain the information as an extra up to four times (Knuchel, Kunter, Pataki and Back, 2010, p. 45). By using a Reed-Solomon error correction technique (Wicker and Bhagavan, 1994), a heavily damaged the QR codes can be read correctly (quoted in Knuchel et al., 1994, p. 45). In addition, the QR code, has the National Standards of the AIM (Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility), JIS (Japanese Standards Association) and JAMA (Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association), ISO (International Organization for Standardization), China, Korea, and Vietnam. The QR code of the specifications, the code symbol on the size, the type and capacity of the information and the data conversion determines the functionality of error correction (Canadi, Hopken and Fuchs, 2010, p. 138). The technical advantages and the degree of standardization of the QR code, is placed the QR code to an advantageous position against the other codes. In order to storing the information on an analog media in digital by the Microsoft developed a twodimensional bar code with the new ‘High Capacity Color Bar Code (figure-3) (High Capacity Color Bar Code (HCCB),’ has a high-density data storage capacity. For every high data capacity color bar code symbol, is used more than one color in combina-

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tion with a different form of a bar code symbol. In nowadays and in using the laboratory tests, eightcolor business card scanner 600 dpi, 2,000 bytes, or a symbol with the highest data density of 3,500 per square inch to be used as the alphabetic characters . It is equal to both pages of a novel (About, 2012).

Figure-1: 1D Code

Data

Data

Figure-2: QR Code

Figure-3: HCCB TO USE OF THE QUICK RESPONSE CODE By widespread using of the smart phone, the awareness of the QR codes and the use of it is increasing rapidly. The majority of the QR code implementations aim the smart phone users (Shin et al., 2012, p. 1417-1426). Therefore, the mobile phone mar-

ket, experienced a rapid transformation towards smart phones from the normal mobile phones, The Turkcell Turkey’s Deputy General Manager Mr. Emre Sayın, who is in charge of Retail Sales and Marketing, (Turkcell, 2012, p. 10) says that they have aimed by “The Smart Phone Movement” campaign with the taglines of it’s smart phone options, at least one smart phone member would be provided out of each 5 Turkcell customers at the end of the campaign. Also, in the near future, the mobile phones will dominate the entire market, is being expected. The Ericsson had announced that according to the 2012 ‘Data Traffic Report (Kulabas, 2012, p. 12) which was released in the first quarter of June, it is foreseen that the number of smartphone users, will reach up to three billions and the number of the mobile Internet users is expected to reach 5 billions in the 2017. According to the studies of The BlackBerry Turkey’s Chief Executive Officer, Mr. Erkut Alkaya (Guler, 2009), one of every three mobile phones that to be sold in 2013, will be the smart phone and also the user profile will show as 20% of smartphone users, he said. A study that carried out by the ComScore’s in 2011, by the June of 2011, the 14 million smart phone users which is representing the 6.2% of the United States’ all mobile device users, in which constituted by using a QR code or barcode scans phones have been determined. Most likely, the users of research results in journals, magazines, and QR codes on product packages show scans in their homes or in stores. The users with the use of the QR code advertising, discount coupons looking for information about products or to respond (Shin et al., 2012, p. 1417-1426). For example, a gas station recently opened in Istanbul in the neighborhood with a QR code placed on billboards, smart phones, teach the first 50 people each day of 50 TL oil has a chance of winning (With QR code, 2012). The basic function of the QR codes, online media and mobile media as a bridge in between. The QR code allows users crossing instant one media to another media (Okazaki, Li and Hirose, 2012, p. 110). The QR codes, mobile Web pages that users without performing any operation directs a keyboard. The QR code takes place in two ways for the users to use. The first of these is a QR code that was created in users’ encrypted information and compared him to reach the code or an outside server to gain access to information compared to the real. Without a mobile phone and a QR code reader’s application, the QR code cannot be implemented by only hand afford. Therefore, in order to be decoded of the QR’s code with a smart phone and a QR code reader application installed on the phone, is a need. The smart phones, through their built-in camera or

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photo scanning business application, that is installed on the device after performing the extraction process, by deciphering the code provides the content to be displayed to the user’s device. After taking a photograph of the users phones, the QR code reader application installed through the message code is being released, images, or uses the information are able to register into their phone. The QR code, itself, can contain information on a server outside to access to real information compared to the reference (URL) (Knuchel et al., 1994, p. 47). Depending on the type of the data used and the characteristics of the application code, a large number operations may be completed after the lodging. The phone number is automatically dialed or converted, the electronic business card (vCard) can be added on the devices, the short messages (SMS) can be sent, the Web page matching with the URL which the decoding is done, can be displayed in browsers, mobile phones or an application executable (Rouillard, 2008, p. 51). From the users point of view the second using type of the QR code, is towards the needs of the user to create their own the QR code by means of a software, the QR code generator. Many of the Web sites, in order to support the non-commercial use, creates a large number of codes and receive the outcomes of the online environments. The users can create an QR code and take the computer outputs of the QR code’s that been created. For this process can be used the paid Web sites and / or the Web sites that is created in free QR code (Shin et al., 2012, p. 1417-1426). THE SUPERIORITY OF THE TRADITIONAL NEWSPAPERS WHICH ARE USING THE QUICK RESPONSE CODES AGAINST ONLINE NEWSPAPERS The traditional newspaper readers, without departing from the printed newspaper can provide access to the Web page of the newspaper or on the content via the QR codes. A bridge may be created between the mobile Web pages and the newspaper pages by the QR code, together with the use of the newspapers. Thus, the QR code, offers to the users the opportunity to use its interactivity. Hence, the traditional newspaper readers, will get the opportunity to access to the Web pages of the newspapers which has more detailed information compared to the content of the online environments. The traditional newspaper readers, can scan the QR codes which have been placed in the newspaper pages by their smart phones and may reach the reports published in the latest developments and news and the background of an event and can quickly access the

history of a case; or enter into communication with columnists on any details about an ad or on a commercial campaign in the online environment without giving up access to the traditional newspaper. A study (McCombs, 2011) have proved a show in the United States that the 6 newspapers which were using the QR codes on the pages of their newspapers on photos, videos, data banks, and social networking sites that the QR codes can be used on there, effectively. For example, in the United States for the first time ‘The Spring River Chronicle’, by the QR code on the pages of newspaper, the multimedia reports speciality have been given to each applying report. The QR codes by means of a notice on the pages of newspapers, every living human voice can be heard (First, 2011). Thus, a fully interactive newspaper through a traditional newspaper readership has had a QR code. The traditional newspaper readership, by scanning the QR code with a smart phone, can initiate an ad on mobile devices or even to be able to benefit from special services available to them to perform certain actions. The QR codes are personalized in smart phones, provides quick and easy accessible content (Shin et al., 2012, p. 1417-1426). By the usage of the QR code, now transformed the traditional newspapers into a hybrid communication tools. The traditional newspapers, which are giving the QR code’s for ads and the reports in their pages may allows for the immediate access to information compared with more detail about the content relevant to readers in the online environment. The QR codes, may bypass the Internet portals and search engines and allows the user a great advantage (Baik, 2012, p. 430). The Internet users, in the published newspapers in the online environment, if is in wish of reaching to the detailed information compared to any news, the user must to achieve to open the Web page that contains the report of information is related to. In other words, the Internet users, firstly must find what he was looking through the search engines and then should give the command to open that page. The Internet users need to perform a few stages. The user may have to access the relevant information also, indirectly. The Internet users, because it is an information dump, often may get to the point as a result of a long struggle for seeking access to information and while can not access the information for a short period of time in the process is preferring to give up the search. In addition, the search engines are bringing a large number of unrelated Web pages to the readers attention and access to information sought is after and due to the complex structure of the Web pages is being more difficult. With the use of the QR code, the emergence of all of these potential problems can be avoided. The

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newspaper readers, by the QR codes, in real time via instant online may access to relevant content. The using of the QR codes in the traditional newspapers and the other significant superiority brought by the newspaper readers are, the newspaper readers through the use of smart phones and regardless of the space in newspapers and online is reaching the relevant content without giving up. Thus the mobile communications users, in the flow of everyday life, is increasing the access to the information and communication (Feldmann, 2005, p. 79-81). On the other hand, an Internet user who wants to read the news and the newspapers published in the online environment of the Internet or a variety of platforms engaged in publishing by using a personal computer, as the computer is located, the space required to adhere to. Therefore, a smart phone’s newspaper readership, which is integrated with daily interaction with the QR code by entering into the beyond time and space constraints, can enjoy with both the newspaper and online media. Having to use the smart phones and mobile communication facilities as easily transported from a place to other place that provides the users the freedom to act independently out of the location. A traditional newspaper reader can access to relevant content by scanning of the QR codes on the smart phone at any time and place. The rapid expansion of the smart phones and the mobile internet usage throughout the world, and of the smart phones can read the QR codes which had been placed on the pages of newspapers, can change the fate of the newspapers. This may cause them to regain a respectable position of the traditional newspapers like old times in their social life. The Google Executive Chairman Mr. Eric Schmidt (Neat, 2010) is estimating that the smartphone sales will pass in front of the personal computers in the near future, and more than half of sales of and mobile phones will perform through the Internet connection. Mr. Schmidt says, the phones are more personal and satisfying, and because of that the phones are no longer just the phones and they have changed our personality. The QR code usage in the traditional newspapers may also provide increased advertising revenues which is the most important item in the newspaper advertising. The advertising market share which is a remarkable part of the traditional media has shifted towards the Internet landscape by the widespread use of the Internet. The QR codes which are placed in the traditional newspapers, in order to give ad-

vertising may cause high traffic on the Web sites and redirecting to Web pages for the newspaper readers and the advertisers and may make the new visitors to register on the e-mail lists that provide information about products or even start a video in YouTube (Ackerman, 2011, p. 12). According to the IAB Europe ADEX 2010 Report (Digital, 2011), the UK digital advertising market has the largest share with 29% of all advertising pie among the European countries with information on the digital advertising market. Now, with the expansion of the use of smart phones and the mobile Internet the ads and the majority spending is expected to begin to roll towards the mobile phones. According to the Google’s predictions, the 1 billion of people will go to the mobile Internet use (Turkey, 2012, p. 16) and will cause a shift on the attention of advertisers in this area by the end of 2012. The rapid growth of the mobile Internet use, had created an ad market which is called the ‘mobile advertising’ and is geared towards a new and fast-growing area. According to the Information and Communication Technologies Authority (ICTA) 2009 Annual Report, some 62.8 million mobile phone subscribers are in Turkey, while having some 7.1 million mobile Internet users. According to the ICTA 2012 of Turkey and the Electronic Communications Sector’s Quarterly Market Data Report, there are some 65.8 million mobile phone subscribers, while there are 34.9 million mobile Internet users. The Information and Communication Technologies Authority in Turkey’s reports show the reached numerical size and the number of the mobile Internet users that reached, within a short period of time. According to the World Bank Development Report, released in August (Turkey, 2012, p. 16), however, the Turkey’s ratio of people to access and use the mobile Internet has already surpassed the United States and the Europe. As the Hurriyet newspaper (Batur, 2012) had been reported, with the rapid increase in the number of mobile Internet users in Turkey and the smart phones and tablet computers and mobile ads had generated 25 million lira worth of advertising market is emphasized. The Google Executive Chairman Mr.Eric Schmidt (Neat, 2010, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/ google/7256103/Google-now-a-mobile-first-company.html) had said that the “mobile advertising will ultimately take place and the advertising in there should be better than the personal computers. With a mobile device, we know where you are so we can offer more local opportunities,” he says. In the traditional newspapers pages, the ads and advertisements must be published in a confined

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spaces due to spatial constraints and the economic reasons. In a newspaper, the news will never be printed in the area for all interested readers (Carlson, 2005, p. 68-71). In theory, a large number of the online news sites may release the news and which has continuously performance for the news updated (Tewksbury and Rittenberg, 209, p. 188). The online media spatial constraints have disappeared altogether. By the QR Codes and that the superlinks established between traditional newspapers and online media once again reveals the importance thereof. The QR codes along with the traditional newspaper ads and advertisements on the pages of a traditional newspaper the readers who want to get on the additional information from the traditional newspaper via the smartphone by scanning the QR code directed to a Web page on the subject. Thus, in addition to the target audience, may be impressed by the advertising and the ads in the pages of the newspaper’s and online pages can be under the influence of the ad and the advertisement. So, from those advertisings the public and/or legal persons may have a broader campaign, with less cost, by using different communication tools. The ‘Rich media’ so-called sound, music, video, and interactivity in using different dimensions of the commercials, advertising recall rate and increase the positive impacts on readers (Yıldız 2012, p. 39). From this point of view, the QR codes are advertising on the pages of newspapers and the promotion of traditional online media (online) captured target audience is in the same time zone via the Internet, through a single communication channel in the written, visual and auditory messages, and directed towards the desired point. Another important feature of the QR’s is the possibility of to trace the codes. The advertisers definitive answer to the users is to be able to track the arrival of the newspaper (OMA, 2008, p. 9). The editor of the Washington Post newspaper Mr. Cory Haik (McCombs, 2011), is remarking that one of the major advantages of the QR codes is the QR codes traffic can be measured by means of online newspapers. Mr. Haik also said that, they have been impressed by the results and will maintain this service to the readers. The QR code applications were using by the Palm Beach Post newspaper in their pages (McCombs, 2011) and expressing that during the QR code applications, the using readers’ besides the age, gender and been able to obtain demographic information, such as the scan indicates the location. Therefore, the traces of the QR codes be driven the media planning phase obtained by

the important contribution of information provided by advertisers is evident. In addition, to collect data and current evaluation is possible from the people who use QR code applications, and the computer systems. These people use smart phones to determine the geographical location (GPS) and the location will be determined with methods that local mobile advertising campaigns for those people will be executable. The Mobile phones are an appropriate tool for personal use, due to the effects of advertising and monitoring and analysis of consumer behavior is also possible (Meng and Yang, 2008). CONCLUSION It is seen that there is an increasing competitiveness between the published in online newspapers and the traditional newspapers which are published in quick-response code. The traditional newspapers, by the QR code feature that will provide interact with the use to the content makers and a new newspaper to the readers. The traditional newspaper readers without giving up of the published newspapers and with another word, without substituting a communication tool to another communication tool, to be able to access to the relevant information on the online environment. A traditional newspaper had been transformed into a hybrid communication tool by the use of the QR code. Accordingly, the individuals whom are today’s Internet users and at the same time the traditional newspaper readers will be able to reach, both to the traditional newspapers and the online environment, as well as video, images, audio, and text files at any time, beyond the limitations of time and space. Mr. Fitzpatrick (Acohido, 2009), says that although today, the QR codes are a great number of micromedia brand reaches to many people through the QR codes that the QR codes will be a mass media. The QR code applications should be appriciated by the newspapers and has an important opportunity for the newspapers. Using the QR codes, within the traditional newspapers will strengthen the further relationships between the traditional newspapers and the newspaper readers (Funk, 2012, p. 16) and will cause many traditional newspaper readers to visit the pages of the online newspapers. The most significant key to the successful use of the newspaper pages is provided through the meaningful contents of the newspapers by the QR codes and in terms of technical actions carried out, in use of the smart phone and browser applications should not to force the readers (Kiesow, 2011).

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Comscore

(2011). A Survey of QR Code. Press Release. http://www.comscore.com/Press_Events/ Press_Releases/2011/8/14_Million_America ns_Scanned_QR_or_Bar_Codes_on_their_ Mobile_Phones_in_June_2011.

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Data Management In The New Communication Environment Yrd. Doç. Dr. Cengiz Erdal Sakarya Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi [email protected] ABSTRACT Advent of computers and especially the internet communication have caused the information handling changed while information flow becoming fast then ever before. Together with those developments, new concepts pertaining to information and information communication in cyberspace have sprung up like virtual environment, human information processing, data storage, data sharing, data processing and data mining. All those processes need to be managed and understood well as to get the most out of the new technologies in managing the information, all of which are thought to be the products of post-modern culture. This study aims to reveal the relations and details of those new concepts due to internet and cyberspace started to be used as to move the information. More information related technological developments comprehended well more we are able to handle and manage the information in electronic environments effectively. Keywords: Data, Data Storage, Data Retrieval, ICT, New Communication Environment. 1. INTRODUCTION One of the main effects of globalization supported by cyber-communication and its facilities in our lives is disappearing of borders between countries and individuals. As a result, multinational organizations have emerged and gained power being able to operate wherever the consumers are, which made them economically stronger than even governments of some countries. Local organizations are forced to establish partnerships with other organizations located abroad to be able compete with rivals. Wireless internet connection, through which mobile devices operate and reach information has changed the way the traditional business is done. As a result, doing business came out of the offices together with the information through cloud computing to wherever the internet connection is. All aforementioned developments require fast flow and effective management of the information that new technologies and new media tools have made it possible through cyberspace. Advent of internet has conduced to constitute many structures which changed the societies. Especially Internet and the broadband connection have enabled information to be moved rapidly between individuals and/or organizations. Besides, internet provides us with connecting to the rest of the world as well as reaching the information of any kind at

any time we go online. According to the latest research figures, almost 2,3 billion out of almost 7 billion people in the world use internet. It almost comes to one in every three people is an internet user (Internet World Stats, 2012). Internet has played a crucial role for individuals in reaching the age of information society. Frissen argues that internet is a metaphor for postmodern techno-culture for a variety of reasons: • It is anarchistic because it has no central authority or rules. • It is self-regulating, because the users define norms and rules for their own communities and the ‘exit’ option is always available. • It is fragmented, because there is no linear process of differentiation, it proliferates and expands without any clear logic: it is an example of the rhizome. • It decenters not only itself but also its users, because their identity is drawn from the different communities and activities on the internet, which posses no stable unity. • It is dependent of time and space and so creates non-territorial communities. • It produces a reality of representations, which are self-referential.

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The metaphorical significance of the internet is so powerful because its specific technical form and its social, political and economic potential are so attractive that a growing number of communication infrastructures will take on an internet character. Whatever efforts are made to keep some infrastructures closed and secure, however ambitious the plans are for regulation and uniformity, the spread of ICT on a world-wide scale into every single household makes central control and domination an illusion (Frissen, 1999:194). Facilities of information society provide certain advantages to individuals imposing to adapt a new way of life such as, being able to work out of office through mobile ICT devices, a borderless world, being a world citizen and becoming concerned about the rest of the world rather than a narrow environment. Advent of 3G and 4G technologies caused dispensability of mobile communication devices for our daily lives bringing some restrictions together, which require effective information management, like devices with different specifications from each other, various screen sizes, internet connection speeds, data processing capacities As a result of fast moving regardless the amount, it has become much easier for data and information to come together with other information as to develop new information causing all kinds of developments including technological developments that have taken place in almost all sectors. Aforementioned developments have engendered to spring up a new form of society, which is so called information society, in which the information has become the most valuable asset changing individuals’ lives substantially. The reason for that is because making it move rapidly in cyberspace, technological developments have also enabled information to be used more effectively in the information age through information management. 2. Data, Information and Knowledge In the information age patterns of economy and doing business have also been changed. Advent of internet together with technological developments has caused most of the businesses to be moved to cyberspace being able to meet demand and reach customers 24 hours a day. Goods production has turned to service production mostly over the short period of time. The network society, in its various

institutional expressions, is, for the time being, a capitalist society. Furthermore, for the first time in history, the capitalist mode of production shapes relationships over the entire planet. But this brand of capitalism is profoundly different from its historical predecessors. It has two fundamental distinctive features: it is global and it is structured to a large extent, around a network of financial flows. Capital works globally as a unit in real time; and it is realized, invested and accumulated mainly in the sphere of circulation, that is as finance capital. While finance capital has generally been among the dominant fractions of capital, we are witnessing the emergence of something different: capital accumulation proceeds and its value-making is generated, increasingly, in the global financial markets enacted by information networks in the timeless space of financial flows (Castells, 1998:471-472). Technological developments, network, information and economy seem to be bound together in the information age. As a multi dimensional concept, information can be used in various contexts for different intentions. Mc Donough describes data as crude material that comprises unprocessed realities or impressions and represented by various symbol, letter, figure and signs (as cited in Bensghir, 1996). Information is gained through processing of data to make sense in a way to support decision making process. Knowledge is making information going through various analysis and classifications in order to be ready to be used for a specific purpose. Knowledge is accepted to be all the experiences, which can be gained by judging. They are kept in libraries owing to be used in the future. In order to identify the qualifications of data, information and knowledge below classification can be made (Figure 2.1). There are two main reasons, which are important to understand the difference between data and information. First, being able to design according to administrators’ information and/or data based requirements. Second, it is necessary to provide decision makers with information rather than data, as they need meaningful information rather than the crude data.

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‘Expertise’ is the application of knowledge in an appropriate and effective way in order to achieve result and performance. ‘Capability’ represents the organizational capacity and expertise to produce a product, service or process at a high level of performance. Capability requires the integration, coordination and cooperation of many individual and team efforts. It is more than just current performance, but also the ability to learn, to innovate and create (Marquardt and Kearsley, 1998:156-157). Marquardt and Kearsley also argue that the types of knowledge are as below; Figure 2.1. IBM seminar notes (not published) (Bensghir, 1996:15).

Information is all around us as we are living in the information age. Having too much information around us makes it harder to reach correct and useful information we may need. Writers have said a lot about information and its emerging. According to the school of idea started from Platon, which is called ‘idealism’, information is produced by human mind. For Kant, the source of information is located outside of the world and it is gained through our senses, but they are crude and can be turned into real information with human mind (Yamaç, 2009:19). The hierarchy or continuum of knowledge is shown in Figure 2.2. As one goes up the hierarchy, there is an increase in breadth, depth, meaning, conceptualization and value.

• Knowing what information is needed (‘know what’) • Knowing how information must be processed (‘know how’) • Knowing why information is needed (‘know why’) • Knowing where information can be found to achieve a specific result (‘know where’) • Knowing when the information is needed (‘know when’) (Marquardt and Kearsley, 1998:158). Unless data is classified and organized as to integrate with each other and with related new data coming from various resources systematically, it would not become a meaningful information and/or knowledge.

‘Data’ includes texts, facts, interpreted images and numeric codes that have not yet been interpreted, have no context and therefore do not yet have meaning. ‘Information’ is data that is imbued with context and meaning, whose form and content are useful for a particular task after having been formalized, classified, processed and formatted. ‘Knowledge’, in turn, is a body of information, principles and experience to actively guide task execution and management, decision-making and problem solving Knowledge is that which enables people to assign a meaning to data and thereby generate information. Knowledge enables people to act and deal intelligently with all the information sources available.

Figure 2.2. Hierarchy of Knowledge (Marquardt and Kearsley, 1998:157).

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2.1. Data Processing And Data Mining

• Decision trees and rules

Data processing enables us to integrate the information or knowledge, which is already in the storage in order to create a meaningful new knowledge, which helps organizations to be ahead of their rivals. Table 2.1. Show the phases of data processing. Table 2.1. Phases of data processing (Bensghir, 1996:22). Phases of Data Processing

Tools

Advantages

Disadvantages

Hand

---

Flexible

Time consuming, not reliable and not economic

Mechanic

Automatic Less time calculator consuming, reliable, standard output

Not flexible, hard to store, expensive

Electromechanic

Spongy card machines

Fast, effici- Expensive, ent, easy sporadic data processing

Electronic

Computer

Fast, reliable, automatic data transfer

Expensive

One of the latest developments in analytical tools is data mining. Data mining provides organizations with finding meaning in their data. By discovering new patterns of fitting models to the data, employees can store and extract information to better develop strategies and answer difficult business questions. OLAP (on-line analytical process) analyzes data with substantial volumes elaborately and emerge hidden patterns and answer all kind of questions managers may ask. Aforementioned data mining software answers the questions, which managers would not even think of. There are several data mining tasks such as classification, regression, cluttering, summarization, dependency modeling and change and deviation detection as well as data mining methods like:

• Nonlinear regression and classification methods • Example-based methods • Probabilistic graphical dependency models • Relational learning methods and use of intelligent agents There is some data-mining tools that are being developed for navigating data, for discovering patterns and creating new strategies and for delineating underlying statistical and quantitative visualization methods. Some visualization products are AVS/Express, SGI MineSet and Visible Decisions Discovery. Also in order to integrate data mining products, Data Mind and IBM’s Intelligent Miner are supposed to be very helpful (Marquardt and Kearsley, 1998:164). So, more we know what kind of information we need, more we have the chance in getting the right information in seconds. Developments in ICT technologies also provide the users with easiness in sharing and retrieving the data. 2.2. Data Sharing, Data Retrieval and Data Storage As knowledge has become one of the most valuable assets in information age, it is so vital for an organization that knowledge needs to be transferred to or from individuals and/or organizations very carefully and accurately or some serious problems may occur causing high costs to be faced. Data storage is also important as to retrieve the knowledge back safely and quickly. Weick warns that as a result of the changeable nature of the storage and retrieval process, the normal integration of human memory, the impact of perceptual filters and the loss of supporting rationales, knowledge retrieved form organizational memory may bear little resemblance to what was originally stored (Weick, as cited,in Marquardt and Kearsley, 1998:166). So, it is vital for an organization to establish a corporate memory and design processes in a manner to ensure accurate and timely knowledge retrieval. The corporate knowledge base consolidates knowledge into a central location. This emerges the conditions for the speed sharing of knowledge and sustained, collective knowledge growth. Lead times among learning and knowledge application are shortened systematically. Human capital becomes more productive because of structured, intelligent and easily accessible processes (Marquardt and Kearsley, 1998:166). As a result companies become more effective in their operations and more responsive to their customers. In order to share and retrieve the data as effective and easy as we wish, it needs to be stored carefully and systematically and protected against malicious cyber attacks.

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Complex structures of organizations and the also the markets have caused companies need more and more information for their management and control operations. Needing big and large amount of information creates information clusters. Therefore, it becomes harder and harder to understand, to remember and to interpret those information clusters. The only way that aforementioned information used effectively and efficiently is to systemize and store it systematically (Bensghir, 1996). That is why adequate system capacity is crucial for effective data storage. The concept first emerged in the 1980s. Once data were in place and catalogued, administrators could help themselves to whatever slice of the organization’s data pie they needed at that moment. A knowledge storage system enables an organization to contain and retain knowledge. So, it becomes organizational property. Unfortunately, knowledge (also referred to as ‘intellectual capital’), though far more important than physical material, is usually scattered, hard to find and liable to disappear without a trace because it is not stored. Storage is obviously important, but what knowledge should be stored is the question (Marquardt and Kearsley, 1998:161). Stewart offers five general categories, under which knowledge should be stored: • Corporate yellow pages – capabilities of employees, consultants and advisors of the organization; e.g., who speaks Thai, who knows JavaScript, who has worked with client A? • Lesson learned – checklists of what went right or wrong that might be applied to other projects; leverage what has been learned in the past rather than losing the recipe. • Competitor and Supplier Intelligence – continuously updated organization profiles and news from commercial and public sources and wire services; call reports from sales people; attendees’ notes from conferences and conventions; an in-house directory of experts, news about regulations. • Organization Experiences and Policies – process maps and work flows, plans, producers, principles, performance measures, share holder and customer profiles, products and services (including features, functionality, pricing, sales and repair). • Organization products and processes – technologies, inventions, data, publications and processes; strategies and cultures, structures and systems as well as organization routines and procedures that work (Stewart, as cited in Marquardt and Kearsley, 1998:161-162).

The way we store the knowledge is also important element of data storage. In order to be able to reach the knowledge or integrate it with previous knowledge easily that we had stored, we need to classify and code it then store it with other related information. Having done that also other people who are supposed to reach the information may reach it easily. Marquardt and Kearsley argue that knowledge is only clumsy data unless it is coded and stored in a way that makes sense to individuals and the organization. Too many organizations remain overwhelmed and inundated with vast amounts of data that clutter up the information highway. An organization cannot learn from the information it is irretrievable, distorted, fragmented or inaccurate. It is important to keep it in mind that knowledge storage involves technical (records, database, etc.) and human process. As the organizations grow bigger and bigger in operation and get more specialized and decentralized, the organization’s storage system and memory can become fragmented and corporate benefits of the knowledge can be harmed. It is true that technological developments enable us to store more information therefore emphasis should be given to data bombardment or information overload. (Marquardt and Kearsley, 1998:162). That is the reason why storing, reaching and retrieving to adequate information is so important for the organizations. 3. CONCLUSION More technological developments continue, more individuals have to deal with new concepts, which change their lives and ways of doing things dramatically. Wide usage of internet communication causes information to spread among individuals swiftly. As a result, information and communication have entwined each other more than ever before. In that sense communication continues serving human beings’ development. So, from one way to another adaptation and/or acceptance level is the main concerns for humans to make their lives easy through those developments. Electronic environment through which the speed of data flow and computerization has brought about some new terms and concerns for human beings lives as to exist in virtual environments and to make use of them effectively. Especially, data management has a critical importance for those who are computer users. Data classification, retrieval and storage are the most important terms that we need to pay attention as computer users in the efforts of managing the information effectively in the elect-

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ronic environment. Individuals’ interaction with computers has caused to emerge a new concept, so called human information processing, in which aforementioned terms are the main concerns. Cloud computing is one of the recent developments in data management, which seems to be a conspicuous alternative to keeping the information with in company buildings. Cloud computing enables organizations and individual users to keep and retrieve the information on a server out of the offices. Users of those services also take the advantage of having databases and application software. Besides, cloud computing providers deal with infrastructure of their users applications. Through high and easy manageability, it is faster for organizations to put their applications in to practice and make the necessary changes when needed, which is inevitable in a fast changing business environment.

Having a cloud keeping system comes forward with its cost cutting and easy reach facilities to information by all the members of an organization form any where through internet connection. Utilizing cloud computing, users would not worry about high maintenance and infrastructure costs, the safety of their data, information and knowledge. and it Providing users with extreme easiness in mobility, the critical success factor in cloud computing is to find a trustworthy provider for information security and uninterrupted services. So, more we become experienced on and know about aforementioned terms and subjects, more we become successful in managing electronic data in the efforts of getting the most out of its facilities that were brought to our lives.

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Marquardt, M., J., Kearsley, G., Technology-Based Learning, CRC Press LLC, New York, 1999. Mirzoeff N., An Introduction to Visual Culture, Routledge, London, 2003. Patkin, T., T.,

Communication and Cyberspace, Chapter 12, Ed. L. Strate, R.L. Jacobson, S. Gibson, Second Edition, Hampton Press, 2003.

Reed, S., K., Cognition, (fourth edition), Brooks/Cole Publishing, Pasific Grove, CA, 1996. Sartori, G., Görmenin İktidarı, (ikinci baskı), Karakutu Yayınları, İstanbul, 2006. Trend D., Reading Digital Culture, Blackwell Publishers, Massachusetts, 2002. Warschauer, M., Technology and Social Inclusion, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 2003.

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The 12th September Referendum in the Social Media in terms of Democracy and New Media Yrd. Doç. Dr. Derya Erdem Yeni Yüzyıl Üniversitesi / İletişim Fakültesi [email protected] ABSTRACT There are significant political elbow turns in the social field where the citizens have become more visible in terms of political actions, discussion and active participation. In Turkey, the 12th September Constitutional Referendum in recent years is among these elbow turns. The subject of 12th September Constitutional Referendum in the social media revealed tendencies towards “no” and “yes” as large-scale protests and campaigns were conducted in this regard. The present study assesses the 12th September Referendum’s reflections on the social media/Facebook with regard to the correlation between the new media and democracy. The contents of sites revealing their tendencies towards “no” and conducting campaigns in Facebook pages, where such campaigns are conducted by various political and ideological societies, shall be investigated using the critical discourse method. In the sites, selected as the samples for the study in consideration of their high participation rates, the comments on messages, photos and videos shall be examined to evaluate the correlation between the social media and democracy with regard to democratic awareness, genre, ethics, discussion and political culture; while discussing the reproduction of the traditional as well as analyzing innovations relating to the democratic transformation in the social media; and the answer shall be sought for the question of how “new” the media is in this regard. Giriş Son yıllarda artan hızda bireyler sosyal medyada daha görünür, aktif ve katılımcı hale gelmişlerdir. Ve bireyler sosyal medyada giderek daha yoğun ve görünür halde politik bir öznellik kazanmaktadır. Bu bağlamda çoğunluğa dayalı demokratik sistemin ötesinde, daha katılımcı ve çoğulcu bir demokratik yapı şekillenmeye başlamıştır. Yeni medya ve demokrasi bağlamında bu gelişme, toplumlarda demokrasinin gelişmesi ve ilerlemesi açısından elbette umut verici bir gelişmedir. Ancak demokratik tartışma kültürü ve siyasal eylem ve üslup bakımından yeni medyanın ne kadar “yeni” olduğu da tartışmaya, araştırılmaya muhtaç bir konudur. Yurttaşların politik eylem, tartışma ve aktif katılım açısından daha yoğun bir biçimde görünür hale geldiği toplumsal alanda önemli siyasal dönemeçler vardır. Türkiye’de son yıllarda 12 Eylül Anayasa Referandumu bu dönemlerden biri olmuştur. Sosyal medyada 12 Eylül Anayasa Referandumu konusunda, referandumda “hayır” ve “evet” eğilimini ortaya koyarak bu alanda geniş eylem ve kampanyalar yürütülmüştür. Ele aldığımız çalışmada, yeni medya ve demokrasi ilişkisi bağlamında 12 Eylül Referandumu’nun sos-

yal medyada/facebook’ta yansımaları irdelenmiştir. Çalışmayı sınırlamak için, değişik siyasal ve ideolojik çevrelerden bu kampanyaların yürütüldüğü facebook sayfalarında, referandumda “hayır” eğilimini ortaya koyarak kampanya yürüten ve katılım oranının en yüksek olduğu “Referandumda ‘Hayır’ diyoruz” başlıklı facebook sitesinin içeriği eleştirel söylem yöntemiyle incelenmiştir. Çalışmada katılım oranının diğer sitelere göre hayli yüksek olduğu ve çalışmada örneklem olarak seçilen “Referandumda ‘Hayır’ diyoruz” facebook sitesinde/topluluğunda, Temmuz-Ağustos-Eylül gibi 3 aylık bir dönemde öncelikle iletiler ve iletilere gönderilen yorumlar, fotoğraflar, videolar irdelenerek, demokratik bilinç, etik, tartışma ve siyaset kültürü açısından sosyal medya ve demokrasi ilişkisi incelenmiş ve sosyal medyada demokratik dönüşüm açısından yeniliklerin çözümlenmesiyle beraber “geleneksel”in de yeniden üretimi tartışma konusu edilmiştir; bu bağlamda yeni medyanın ne kadar “yeni” olduğu da bir sorgulama konusu/sorunsal olarak ortaya konmuştur. Hemen belirtmeliyiz ki, ileri ve gelişmiş, çağdaş demokrasi aynı zamanda demokratik bilinç, etik, siyaset ve tartışma kültürüne ihtiyaç duyar. Demokrasi sadece bir yönetim biçimi değil, aynı zamanda kültürel bir yaşam biçimidir. Yani demokrasinin kendine has bir kültürü vardır (Tuna, 2000). De-

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mokratik bilinç/ya da demokrasi bilinci, tartışma ve siyaset kültürü içinde dil, üslup ve konuşma biçimi çok önemlidir. Yani “ne söylediğiniz” ve “neyi, nasıl söylediğiniz, nasıl konuştuğunuz” önemlidir. Bir konu hakkında ya da toplumsal bir sorun hakkında yapılan tartışmalar, muhalefet biçimi, tartışma ve siyaset biçimi, yol ve yöntemi ne kadar etik ve dil, üslup ve konuşma biçimi olarak ne kadar demokratik tartışma kültürüne, söylem biçimine uygundur? Çalışmamızda bunları gözetiyor ve irdeliyoruz. Günümüzde, internet gibi mecralar ve sosyal medya yeni bir kamusal alan yaratmakta ve bu alanda yurttaşların daha katılımcı ve görünür hale gelmesiyle evet demokrasinin çehresi, yapısı değişmekte, daha katılımcı, çoğulcu bir demokratik sistem yeşermeye başlamaktadır. Bu süreç, “dijital demokrasi/elektronik demokrasi/siber demokrasi” gibi kavramlarla ifade edilmektedir (Kellner, 2004). Ancak, sosyal medyadaki içerik ve söylem de bir o kadar önemlidir. Evet, dışarıdan bakıldığında şekilsel olarak yani şeklen demokrasinin çehresi, şekli değişmektedir, ve buna bağlı olarak siyaset ve muhalefet yapma biçimi de değişmekte, sosyal medya artık siyaset ve muhalefet yapmanın, eylem ve aktivitelerin bir mecrası haline gelmektedir. Ve bu bağlamda yeni bir “tekno-politika”nın doğuşuna, “radikal demokratik bir tekno-politikanın” (Kellner, 2004) doğuşuna tanıklık etmekteyiz. Ancak bu değişen ve dönüşen demokratik biçim içinde ve değişen ve dönüşen siyaset ve muhalefet biçimi içinde, siyaset ve muhalefetin nasıl yapıldığı, yapılan tartışmaların ve aktivitelerin ne kadar demokratik bilinç, etik ve üsluba uygun olduğu da önemli bir tartışma ve araştırma konusudur. Yani sosyal medyada sadece aktif bir katılımcı olmak yetmiyor, “ne söylüyorsunuz, nasıl söylüyorsunuz”, sosyal medyada ne yapıyorsunuz, sosyal medyayı nasıl kullanıyorsunuz, kısacası, neyi, nasıl konuşuyorsunuz, bu da çok önemli bir konu olarak karşımıza çıkıyor. Siyaset yapma ve muhalefet biçimi ya da tartışma kültürü yenilikçi, alternatif, özgürlükçü, radikal bir demokratik dönüşümüme mi işaret ediyor, yoksa geleneksel siyaset yapma, muhalefet biçimi, söylem ve tartışma kültürünü yeniden mi üretmektedir ve bu bağlamda “yeni medya, ne kadar yenidir”, bu konuyu tartışmak ve konuşmak önemlidir.

cu olarak değil, çoğu kez genellikle “ilgi ortaklıkları” nedeniyle ve “seçim yaparak” sosyalleşmekte, bu bağlamda burada üyelerin dünyası küçülme ve içe dönme tehlikesi ile de karşı karşıya kalmakta (Subaşı, 2005: 115), internette oluşan sanal cemaatlerin buluşma noktası (çoğu kere) “diğerine” karşı gösterilen tahammülsüzlük olmaktadır (Aksoy, 1996: 166). Ele aldığımız çalışmada, 12 Eylül referandumunda “hayır” eğilimi içinde olan ve katılım oranının yüksek olduğu bir siteyi bu bağlamda irdelemeye ve değerlendirmeye çalıştık. Site 2010 Ocak ayında kurulmuş ve şu an itibariyle günümüzde de etkinliğini, faaliyetlerini, eylemlerini sürdüren bir sitedir. Sadece 12 Eylül 2010 referandumunda yürütülen “referandumda hayır” kampanyası olarak kalmamış, belki de sitenin çok fazla üyesi olması nedeniyle eylem ve faaliyetlerine günümüze kadar devam etmiştir. Yani yaklaşık 3 yıldır etkinliğini sürdüren bir sitedir. Sitenin katılım oranı olarak 355 binden fazla üyesi vardır, ve yine bu üyeler içinde, farklı şehirlerden kadın, erkek, genç, orta yaş ve orta yaş üstü katılımcılar, yurttaşlar vardır. Yani cinsiyet, eğitim, statü ve yaş kriteri olarak değişken bir özellik göstermekte ve özellikle genç yaş ağırlıklı olmak üzere her yaş grubundan ve her eğitim düzeyinden, statüden katılımın olduğu bir özellik taşımaktadır. Sitenin, web adresi, kapak fotoğrafı ve profil resmi, aşağıda olduğu gibidir: (https://www.facebook.com/hayir.dedik) Referandumda ‘’ HAYIR’’ Diyoruz (Topluluk)

Günümüzde internet aynı zamanda “sanal cemaat” tartışmaları içinde de değerlendirilmekte (Subaşı, 2005: 106-118), internetteki sanal cemaatlerin gelenekseli değiştiren, dönüştüren yenilikçi, değişimci/ dönüşümcü, özgürlükçü potansiyeline dikkat çekilirken, çoğu kez de gelenekseli yeniden ürettiğine de dikkat çekilmektedir. Zira internette bir araya gelenler, tesadüflerin ya da zorunlu karşılaşmaların sonu-

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-Sitenin profil resmi

-- Şunu herkesin bilmesi gerekmektedir, AKP cumhuriyet düşmanı bir harekettir ve bu referandumla cumhuriyete karşı epeydir başlattıkları savaşı ivmelendirmek arzusundadırlar. ‘hayır’ oylarımız cumhuriyete sahip çıkmaktır -- Sivil darbelere hayır diyoruz… --- vatana ihanete hayır! -- Akp’nin kendini kurtarma planının bir ayağı olan Anayasa değişikliğine hayır.

-Sitenin Kapak Fotoğrafı

Sitenin “Beğeniler” sayfasında belli başlı şu siteler vardır: -- Kemalizm; Cumhuriyet-Muhafızları; Akp’ye Oy Vermeyecek Milyon Kişiden Biriyim; Ne-MutluCHP’liyiz; Sakin Güç (Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu-Politikacı) Sitenin “Etkinlikler” sayfasında ise şu etkinliklere yer verilmiştir: -- 19 Mayıs’ımıza Dokundurtmayız Meydanlardayız; AKP’ye İçiyoruz; Oyumu Cumhuriyet Halk Partisine Vereceğim; AKP’yi Islıklıyoruz@Türkiye; AKP’ye İçiyoruz (2). Referandumda “HAYIR” Diyoruz grubunun “Hakkında” sayfasında sitenin kuruluş tarihi dışında herhangi bir ileti, bilgi yoktur, ancak, “beğeniler” ve “etkinlikler” sayfalarına baktığımızda site hakkında kolaylıkla bir fikir edinebiliyoruz. Topluluğun Cumhuriyet Halk partili olduğu ve Kemalist, Cumhuriyetçi, Ulusalcı bir kimliğe sahip olduğu açıkça anlaşılmaktadır. Sitenin kimliği, siyasal ve ideolojik duruşu hakkında fikir edindikten sonra, 12 Eylül referandumuna grup üyelerinin neden “hayır” dediği, bunu nasıl gerekçelendirdiği konusunu ele almakta fayda vardır. Neden “Hayır”? Geleneksel Siyaset, Geleneksel Muhalefet Kültürü ve Söylemi Sitenin adminler/yöneticiler tarafından gönderilen “referanduma hayır” yönündeki iletilerde, çalışmada ele aldığımız Temmuz, Ağustos ve Eylül aylarından referanduma 2 ay kala özellikle temmuz aylarında ağırlıklı olarak şu iletiler dikkat çekmektedir: -- Ya evet diyecek, Cumhuriyetle hesaplaşanlara teslim olacaksın, ya da Cumhuriyeti kurtaracak hayır diyeceksin

-- Ne sağı ne solu, yaşasın Mustafa Kemalin Tam Bağımsız Türkiye yolu… -- AKP DİKTASINA HAYIR… -- ÜLKEMİZİ SATMAK İSTEYEN GELECEĞİMİZİ KARATMAK İSTEYEN ŞEREFSİZLERE HAYIR DİYECEĞİZ -- BÜTÜN TÜRKİYE CUMHURİYETİ DÜŞMANLARI, ORDU DÜŞMANLARI, BÖLÜCÜLER, İŞBİRLİKÇİLER, YOBAZLAR, HIRSIZLAR, SAHTEKARLAR, KISACASI ONURSUZLAR EVET DİYECEKLER(28 ağustos) -- Akpye de referanduma da hayır (9 Eylül) -- bugün akp anayasasına hayır diyenler, ileride tarihin sayfalarındaki yerlerini yurtseverler olarak alacaklardır Sitenin referandumda neden hayır diyeceklerine ilişkin iletilerine baktığımızda, her şeyden önce Türkiye’de tarihten bu yana gelen İslamcı-Laik/ Cumhuriyetçi çatışmasının izdüşümlerini görüyoruz. Sitenin Cumhuriyetçi-Ulusalcı-Kemalist ve bu ideolojinin öncülüğünü yapan CHP’li üye ve yöneticilerinin, AKP’ye karşı bir “güvensizlik, endişe ve korku” duyguları içinde olduklarını görüyoruz. Dolayısıyla 12 Eylül referandumunda hayır eğilimi, her şeyden önce AKP’ye/hükümete hayır eğilimi olarak beliriyor. Zira Anayasa değişiklik paketindeki maddeler, tek tek eleştiri konusu edilip bu maddelere neden hayır dedikleri belirtilmiyor, temel endişe ve korkunun çoğu kez İslam dinini referans alan ve dini/ İslami bir parti olmasından kaynaklanan AKP olduğu gözlemleniyor. Yani Anayasa değişiklik paketinin içeriğinden çok, bu paketi kimin hazırladığı, hangi partinin, hükümetin hazırladığı önem teşkil ediyor. İletilere baktığımızda, AKP, Cumhuriyete karşı savaşan, Cumhuriyet düşmanı, laiklik düşmanı bir parti olarak algılanıyor, ve dolayısıyla böyle bir partinin hazırladığı anayasa değişiklik paketine de sorgusuz sualsiz daha baştan hayır deme eğilimi gözlemleniyor. Referandum “Cumhuriyet düşmanlarıyla hesaplaşma, Cumhuriyeti kurtarma” olarak görülüyor. Ve yine iletilere bakıldığında, AKP, “ülkeyi satmak isteyen”, “vatana ihanet eden”, “emperyalistlerle işbirliği yapan” bir parti olarak nitelendiriliyor. Yani

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referandum, anayasa değişiklik paketi oylaması dışında, amacını aşarak, referandumun amacının ve içeriğinin çok ötesinde, ideolojik bir çekişme, hesaplaşma olarak ön plana çıkıyor. Sitedeki topluluğun demokratik siyaset ve demokratik muhalefet yapma biçimi olarak olumsuz bir tavır ve duruş içinde olduklarını söyleyebiliriz. Alternatif bakış açılarının olmaması, yenilikçi fikirlerin olmaması ve fikirlerin değil, partilerin, kişilerin ve kurumların yarışması/yarıştırılması Türkiye’de siyaset kültürünün açmazlarından biri olan koyu bir partizancılık ve parti, ideoloji sempatizanlığının ağır bastığına işaret etmektedir. Bir nevi takım tutma gibi “parti ve ideoloji tutma” ve bu konuda bir tür fanatizm vardır. Bu anlamda siyasal partiler ve partiyi destekleyenler arasında bir tür kutuplaşma, çatışma ve uzlaşmazlık vardır. Bu bağlamda sosyal medya gelenekseli yeniden üreten bir araç olarak da karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Düşmanlık, Çatışma, Savaş, Şiddet ve Nefret Söylemi Sitenin özellikle Ağustos ve Eylül ayı iletilerine baktığımızda, giderek bir “düşmanlık, çatışma, savaş, şiddet ve nefret” söyleminin ağırlık kazandığını ve hep bir “yıkıp, yakıp, yok etme” gibi bir saldırganlık ve dilsel şiddet eğiliminin baskın olduğunu görüyoruz. Bu iletilerden bazılarına kısaca göz attığımızda şunları görüyoruz: -- Cumhuriyet değil, AKP yıkılacak! (31 Ağustos) -- (…) aglayacagız gülecegiz ama illaki bu mücadeleyi kazanacagız! (28 ağustos) -- ülkemizi kurtarıyoruz.. (28 ağustos) -- patlat ampülü yanmasın, güneş doğuyor bak! (28 ağustos) -- 393 BİNİZ, HİÇ BİR HİLE DÜZENBAZLIK VE SALDIRI YOLUMUZDAN ALIKOYAMIYACAKTIR! TEK YOL KURTULUŞA KADAR SAVAŞMAKTADIR (26 ağustos) -- (…) memleketi ele geçirdik düşüne dalmışlar! bir tek bizi hesaplayamamışlar, söz zerrelerini bırakmayacagız yok olacaklar(26 ağustos) -- 1. Kurtuluş Savaşımızda Mağlubiyete ugrattığımız Emperyalistler, Rövanş almak istemektedirler, AKP-PKK bu anlamda bize karşı açılmış savaşın bir parçasıdır. Bizede 2. Kurtuluş Savaşını vermek düşmektedir. (25 ağustos)

-- son çırpınışlarıdır, demir yumruklarımız altında mutlaka ezileceklerdir…(25 ağustos) -- yıkana kadar durmak yok…(2 Eylül) -- yumruklarımız hayır için kalkacak..meydanlarda…(5 Eylül) -- kılıçdaroğlu başbakan olacak…(6 Eylül) -- Mustafa kemalin askerleriyiz ve cumhuriyetin bekçileriyiz..!!! (6 Eylül) -- onlar ülkede ne varsa ne yoksa babalar (!) gibi sattılar. Biz de 12 eylül de hayır oyu vererek babalar gibi tekmeyi vuracağız(7 Eylül) -- 12 eylül akşamı kaç milyon vatan haini ile iç içe yaşadığımızı öğreneceğiz! (7 Eylül) -- (…) bu bir seferberliktir ! (7 Eylül) -- evetistanı başlarına yıkacağız!!! (8 Eylül) -- ve gözlerine soka soka kazanacağız.. (8 Eylül) -- devleti ele geçirdigini, halkı teslim aldıgını zanneden tayyipi, hazırladıgı referandum kuyusuna kendisini gömerek, devletle ugraşmanın ne demek oldugunu, halkı çaresiz bırakmanın ne oldugunu, padişahlık hayali kurmanın sonunun ne oldugunu göstereeeceeez ! (9 Eylül) -- Yarsav Bizim, Türkiye Bizim, Başbakan Aponun ! (1 Eylül) -- faşizme geçit yok(10 Eylül) -- 558 bin kişilik bir orduyuz, ülkemize ve geleceğimize sahip çıkıyoruz.. (10 Eylül) -- elime düşürmüşüz ki onları bırakır mıyız bir daha, kurtulamayacaklar, kaçamayacaklar! (10 Eylül) -- 13 eylülden itibaren buluşma noktamız AKP’ye hayır… tek yol CHP…(11 Eylül) Yukarıdaki iletilere baktığımızda hep ünlem işaretli saldırgan ifadeler olduğunu görüyoruz. Bu ifadelere baktığımızda, “Yıkmak, sandıklara gömmek, yüce divanda yargılatmak, kan kusturmak, istifaya çağırmak, mücadeleyi kazanmak, ülkeyi kurtarmak, ampulü patlatmak, Türkiye cumhuriyeti düşmanları, ordu düşmanları, AKP defol, yobazlar, alçaklar, faşistler, cellatlar, günlerini göstereceğiz, ..ne demek olduğunu öğreteceğiz, kurtulamayacaklar, kaçamayacaklar, ezeceğiz, tekmeyi vuracağız, yumruklarımızı kaldıracağız, başlarına yıkacağız, teslim olmayacağız, kazanacağız,” gibi kin, nefret, düşmanlık ifadeleri ve bir tür şiddet ve savaş söyleminin ağırlık kazandığını görüyoruz. Bütün bu ifadelere baktığımızda, sosyal medyada ele aldığımız sitede, yenme-yenilme, kazanma-kay-

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betme bağlamında siyasetin hep bir çatışma, düşmanlık, savaş, hatta intikam söylemi üzerine kurulu olduğunu görüyoruz. Çatışma elbette doğanın diyalektiğinde var, çatışma elbette olmalı, ancak bu demokratik bir yolla fikirsel, düşünsel bir çatışma olabilir. Ancak buradaki çatışma, fikirsel çatışmanın ötesinde, saldırganlık içinde, kavgacı, düşmanlık ve dilsel şiddet üreten bir çatışma. Karşı olunan tarafı, sadece yıpratma, “üstünü çizme”, yok etme, yakıp yıkma gibi bir şiddet ve nefret söylemi var.

görsellerin olduğunu görüyoruz. Aslına bakılırsa, dildeki bu şiddet çok masum da değil, hatta hiç masum değil. Zira bu dilsel şiddetin sonucu, bazen fiziksel şiddete de dönüşebiliyor. Aslına bakılırsa, işin en vahim, kötü yanı ise sosyal medyada sıklıkla ve yoğun bir biçimde kullanıldığı için, nefret, düşmanlık, şiddet söyleminin sıradanlaşması, meşrulaşması. Yani bir süre sonra bu durum, “olağan, normal, tanıdık, sıradan” olmaya başlıyor, sıradanlık kazanıyor ve meşrulaşıyor.

Ve yine sitede, referandum, amacının çok ötesinde bir “seferberlik”, “savaş” hali olarak görülmektedir. Bu, “bizim ikinci kurtuluş savaşımız” denilmekte, referandum “kurtuluş savaşı” gibi görülmekte ve bu bir “seferberliktir” denilmektedir. “Hayır” demenin, Cumhuriyetle hesaplaşanlara “teslim olmama” anlamına geldiğini söylemektedirler, yani bir “teslim olma/olmama-teslim alma” gibi yine bir savaş, mücadele söylemi vardır. Sitede “dağ başını duman almış, yürüyelim arkadaşlar..” gibi gençlik marşlarına, ya da Onuncu Yıl Marşı’na sıklıkla yer veriliyor. Kendilerini savaşa çıkmış, muharebeye çıkmış bir ordu olarak görüyorlar ve tanımlıyorlar. Bu bizim “kurtuluş savaşımız” diyorlar ve sürekli “kurtuluştan” bahsediyorlar. Dolayısıyla kullandıkları söylem de buna uygun olarak, hep şiddet, çatışma, savaş söylemi. Örneğin, “mevcut sistemin son kalesi yargı, o da düşmek üzeredir” gibi iletiler ve yorumlar var. Yani yargı gibi organları sistemin ve kendi ideolojik yaklaşımlarının bir kalesi gibi görüyorlar. Burada tabii, “kale, kalenin düşmesi” gibi ifadelerin de aslında bir tür savaş söylemi olduğu açıkça görülüyor.

Aşağılayıcı, Karalayıcı, Etiketleyici Etik Dışı Söylem

Bu bağlamda gruba baktığımızda, demokratik siyaset ve muhalefet yapma anlamında fikirlerin yarıştığı, düşüncelerin, fikirlerin tartışıldığı bir ortam yok. Kişilere, kurumlara, partilere saldırı ve bir tür partizancılık var. Körükörüne bir partiye biat etme, particilik yapma, koyu bir taraftarlık, kastlaşma, klikleşme ve fanatizm var. Eleştiriye ve karşı görüş ve düşüncelere tahammül yok. Mutlaka “karşı” olduğunu ifade ederek, bu çatışmayı yeniden yeniden üretmek için bir çatışmacı, kavgacı söz üretme durumu, “geleneksel bir çatışma kültürü” (Simmel, 1999) var. Hep karşı çıkma, mutlaka sataşma, yüklenme, saldırı kültürü var. Türkiye’de bir partiyi destekliyorsanız, diğer partileri rakip olarak, “düşman” olarak görme kültürü var. Söz konusu AKP-CHP olduğunda, bu durum, tarihi husumetten kaynaklı, daha belirgin olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Sitedeki video, fotoğraf gibi iletilere de baktığımızda yumruklu, saldırgan, şiddet içerikli fotoğrafların,

Ele aldığımız sitede, referandum sonrası, anayasa değişiklik paketine yaklaşık %58 civarında “evet” oyu ve yine %42 oranında “hayır” oyu çıkması sonucu, grubun 13-18 Eylül arası iletilerine baktığımızda, saldırgan ve şiddet içerikli mesajların yanında, “aşağılayıcı, karalayıcı, etiketleyici” etik dışı bir söylemin giderek yoğunluk kazandığını görüyoruz. Her şeyden önce bu iletilerin çoğuna baktığımızda, eleştiri dozunun giderek arttığını, saldırganlık ve şiddet eğiliminin de devam ettiğini görüyoruz. Ancak yıkıcı eleştiri, saldırganlık, şiddet eğiliminin yanında bir tür “aşağılama, hakaret, alaya alma, küçümseme, rencide etme, karalama, etiketleme ve hatta küfür” gibi etik dışı bir dil ve retoriğin de dolaşıma girdiğini görüyoruz. İletilere baktığımızda, referandumda “evet” diyenler, “vatan haini, ülkesini sevmeyen, alevi düşmanı, ordu düşmanı, vatanı/ülkeyi satan, çağdışı, hain, işbirlikçi, bölücü” olarak etiketlendirilmiştir. Ve yine referanduma “evet” diyenler, “cahil, aptal, salak, koyun/davar, yobaz, dinci, faşist, aklı kısa, namussuz, şerefsiz, korkak, onursuz, alçak, sahtekâr, ahlaksız, şarlatan, soytarı, makarnacı, kömürcü” gibi sıfatlarla aşağılanmakta, küçümsenmekte ve hor görülmektedir. Kullanılan dil ve üslup etik sınırları aşmakta ve etik sorumluluktan uzak, aşağılayıcı, karalayıcı, hakaret edici bir özellik taşımaktadır. Sitede grup üyeleri, referandumda “hayır” diyenleri, yani kendilerini ise, “Atatürkçü, vatansever/yurtsever, şerefli, onurlu, namuslu, aydın, çağdaş, eğitimli, bilinçli, akıllı, dürüst, ahlaklı” vb. olarak tanımlamaktadır. Sitede, grup üyelerinin referandumda “evet” ya da “hayır” diyenleri, bir bütünsellik içinde totalleştirdiklerini, bir bütün olarak gördüklerini/değerlendirdiklerini ve bir tür klikleşme, kastlaşma, kamplaşma ve kutuplaşma içinde algıladıklarını söyleyebiliriz. Oysa referandumda “hayır” ya da “evet” diyenler içinde çok farklı siyasi, ideolojik görüş ve fikirlerden

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insanların olduğu bir gerçektir. Yani, eldeki verilerin ve kamuoyu yoklamalarının da gösterdiği gibi “hayır” diyenlerin hepsinin CHP’li olmadığı gibi, “evet” diyenlerin hepsi de AKP’li değildir. Oysa sitede grup üyeleri ve yöneticileri referandumda “hayır” diyenleri Kemalist, Cumhuriyetçi, devrimci ve büyük oranda da CHP’li olarak algılamaktadır. Yine “evet” diyenler de, işbirlikçi, yobaz, dinci, alevi düşmanı, ordu düşmanı olarak nitelendirilmekte ve genellikle AKP’li olarak nitelendirilmektedir. Dolayısıyla referandum sonrası da süreç, bir tür AKP-CHP kamplaşması, kutuplaşması ve çatışması olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Diğer parti ve görüşten kimseler pek dikkate alınmamakta, önemsenmemekte ya da referandumda “hayır” oyu vermesi ve CHP’ye yakın durması bağlamında dikkate alınmakta, değerlendirilmekte ve önemsenmektedir. Başka türlü, diğer görüş, düşünce ve fikirlerin herhangi bir etkisi, geçerliliği ve değeri yoktur. Ya da ancak, iletilerdeki mesajlarla, fotoğraf ya da video görselleriyle alay, dalga ve aşağılama, küçümseme konusu olabilmektedir. Yine sitede, esnekliğe ya da ılımlı bir tutuma hiç yer olmadığını görüyoruz. Sözgelimi referandum sonuçlarını kabullenme, sindirme, tahammül ya da en azından hoşgörüyle, ya da mesafeli, sağduyulu hareket etme, soğukkanlılıkla karşılama ve böyle bir siyasal olgunluk, demokratik tavır ve tutum yoktur. Sitede grup üyeleri ve yöneticilerinin bunlardan ziyade, duygularıyla hareket ettiklerini, konulara duygusal yaklaştıklarını ve ileti ve mesajlarında da duygulara hitap ettiklerini, duyguları ajite ettiklerini ve yine duyguları kışkırttıklarını/provoke ettiklerini görüyoruz. Grup üyeleri “ateşli, saldırgan bir taraftar” gibi hareket etmekte, koyu, katı, sekter bir “taraftarlık” ruhu içinde, bir tür “fanatizm” içinde hareket etmektedirler. Ve yine daha da önemlisi, bu sekter eğilim içinde kendi yaşam kültürünü, kendi görüşlerini, düşüncelerini dayatma eğilimi vardır. Referandum sonrası iletilere baktığımızda, bir grup üyesinin 13 Eylül 2010 tarihli “toplumsal mutabakat” diyen bir iletisi dikkat çekmektedir. Ancak diğer iletilere gruptan yüzlerce, binlerce beğeni, yorum ve aktif katılım varken, bu iletiye gruptan tek bir “beğeni” olduğunu görüyoruz. Bu iletiye, grup üyelerinin umursamaz ve kayıtsız kaldıkları, iletiyi önemsemedikleri anlaşılmaktadır. Aslında bu da bize grup üyelerinin uzlaşma, mutabakat, anlaşma, diyaloga yakınlaşma gibi bir tavır ve duruş içinde olmadıklarını göstermektedir. Dolayısıyla daha önce de vurguladığımız gibi hep bir tahammülsüzlük, kavga, uzlaşmazlık, düşmanlık, kutuplaşma ve kamplara ayrılma durumu vardır.

Önemli bir nokta da, bu tür eylem ve siyaset biçiminin bir tür “kahramanlık” ve “onurlu, gururlu olmak” olarak algılanmasıdır. Referandumdan sonra sitede iletiler “günaydın Türkiye’mizin onurlu insanları” olarak gelmektedir artık. Onca hakaret, aşağılama ve saldırganca ifadelerden/iletilerden sonra, “günaydın Türkiye’mizin onurlu insanları” ya da “günaydın ülkenin aydınlık insanları” gibi iletilerin gelmesi aslında biraz da garip/tuhaftır. Zira “bu nasıl bir onurlu duruş ve aydın olma halidir” diye sormak gerekiyor. Aslında konunun en kötü/vahim yanı ise, sosyal medyada hakaret, aşağılama, küçümseme vb. gibi etik dışı bir söylemin de giderek sıradanlaşması, olağanlaşması, normalleşmesi, doğallaşması durumunun söz konusu olmasıdır. Sonuç Yerine Günümüzde sosyal medya geleneksel medyaya alternatif, yeni bir iletişim mecrası olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Bu yeni iletişim mecrasında, aslına bakılırsa pek çok blog, facebook, twitter sayfalarında alternatif, muhalif, özgürlükçü, yeni ve yenilikçi, değişimci/dönüşümcü bir bakış açısının, alternatif, radikal-eleştirel muhalif söylemlerin de üretildiğini görüyoruz. Ancak, ele aldığımız ve irdelediğimiz facebook sayfasında da gördüğümüz gibi, sosyal medyada çoğu kez geleneksel/egemen siyaset, geleneksel muhalefet ve tartışma kültürünün de yeniden üretildiğini yani gelenekselin alıkonduğunu da görüyoruz. Evet belki de sosyal medya alternatif bir iletişim mecrası olarak daha katılımcı bir demokratik sistemin yeşermesini sağlıyor ve aslına bakılırsa, bu alan, statükocu, egemen söylemleri kıran, alternatif, muhalif radikal fikirlerin görüşlerin ve eylemlerin de yürütüldüğü bir alan olarak karşımıza çıkıyor. Ancak pek çok sitenin de statükoyu, egemen söylemi, geleneksel siyaseti, geleneksel muhalefet ve tartışma kültürünü yeniden ürettiğini de belirtmemiz gerekiyor. Bu bağlamda, yeni medyanın, “ne kadar yeni” olduğunu da sorgulamak, irdelemek gerekiyor. Örneklem olarak ele aldığımız sitede 12 Eylül referandumu bağlamında “neyin, nasıl konuşulduğu” konusunu bir kez daha kısaca değerlendirdiğimizde, “referandumda ‘hayır’ diyoruz” grubunun facebook sayfasında, referandumun, anayasa değişiklik paketinin, yani konunun amacını da aşarak, konunun dışına çıkılarak, kişi-kurum ve partilere bir karşıtlık içinde, şiddet, düşmanlık, savaş, saldırganlık, çatışma ve nefret söyleminin, dışlama ve ötekileştirme söyleminin üretildiğini görüyoruz. Ve yine, “bölücülük, namus, vatan, millet, vatanseverlik” kavramları

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etrafında ve Cumhuriyetçi, Kemalist söylem içinde, savaşçı, ulusalcı, milliyetçi, militarist bir söylemin de üretildiğini ve kışkırtıcı, saldırgan bir tür milliyetçi hamasetin yapıldığını görüyoruz. Aslında bütün bu söylem biçimi de başka bir söylem biçimine, erkek egemen, eril bir dile, ataerkil milliyetçi-muhafazakâr bir söyleme eklemlenmektedir.

Sonuç olarak, bu tarz siyaset, muhalefet ve tartışma biçiminin demokratik olmadığını, demokratik bir siyaset, muhalefet ve tartışma kültüründen uzaklaşıldığını söyleyebiliriz. Bu bağlamda diyebiliriz ki, yeni bir siyaset anlayışı, yeni bir muhalefet tarzı, yeni bir etik, dil ve üslup biçimine, yeni bir tartışma kültürüne çok ihtiyacımız var.

Kaynakça Aksoy, A.

(1996). “İnternet ve Demokrasi”. Diyalog, Sayı: 1, ss.159-170.

Bauman,

Zygmunt (2012). “Do Facebook and Twitter help spread Democracy and Human Rights?”, Social Europe Journal, 08 May. http://www.social-europe.eu/

Binark, Mutlu

(Der.) (2007). Yeni Medya Çalışmaları. Ankara: Dipnot Yayınları.

Kellner, Douglas (2004). “Tabandan Küreselleşme: Radikal Demokratik Bir Teknopolitikaya Doğru.” Kamusal Alan içinde. (Editör: Meral Özbek). İstanbul: Hil Yayın. Simmel, Georg (1999). Çatışma Fikri ve Modern Kültürde Çatışma. (Yayına Hazırlayan: Ahmet Aydoğan). İstanbul: İz Yayıncılık. Subaşı, Necdet (2005). “İnternet ve Sanal Cemaat Tartışmaları.” İnternet, Toplum, Kültür içinde. (Derleyenler: Mutlu Binark-Barış Kılıçbay). Ankara: Epos Yayınları. Tuna, Muammer (2000). “Demokrasi Kültürü.” Felsefelogos 11 içinde. İstanbul: Fesatoder Yayınları.

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Improvement Of Participatory Approach Geographical Information System Interface Design So As To Support Information Sharing For Effective Usage Of Recreation Areas ESRA BULUT PEYNİRCİ [email protected] Abstract Map-based geographical information systems can analyze various complex information at the same time such as urban planning, administration, taking decisions. Carrying out the duties of establishments and institutions having business in meeting the joint demands of urban individuals without delay is available if these said establishments and institutions have sufficient urban information. This situation associates urban planning to GIS (Geographical Information System) which will provide map-based information as a practical way. Web 2.0 defines a system that internet users create collectively and by sharing. This research examines the ideal interface design criteria of web-based (WebGIS) and participant attended (PAGIS) Geographical Information System to be used for local users’ constituting a detail and updated database about recreation areas only in Istanbul. We discuss the said systems in terms of data collection, storage, processing, evaluation and sharing processes with regards to interface design criteria. With this research it is aimed to find an effective solution so as to increase the interaction between the institutions having business in administration and recreationally in towns and local residents. Keywords: PAGIS, Recreation Areas, Municipality. 1. INTRODUCTION Active life of urban individuals necessitates recreation areas for physical and mental health persistence and importance of these areas in towns is increasing day by day. Convenience of recreation areas in towns for the usage of people enables different disciplines to carry out detail studies in this field. Geographical information systems (GIS) have been frequently used in urban life projects in recent years. GIS appears as an important administration tool with regards to implementation of infrastructure facilities such as road, water and sewerage besides planning as well as coordinating with other facilities (Ülkenli, 1997). A study about Lake Victoria is an example of this research which allows change between socio-economic activities and area usage to plan with the help GIS (Musamba et al. 2011). A similar study was carried out in order to improve tourism of Abel Tasman National Park in Marahau, becoming a tourism icon in New Zealand (Hasse&Milne, 2005).  These studies allowing geographical variable information to be followed frequently in strategical terms for a long time throughout the world has been getting widespread in Turkey in recent years. In a research conducted the existing infrastructure of sports and recreation areas of Elazığ city center was studied to be analyzed by means of GIS (Üstündağ et al. 2011). In another study conducted in Çankırı city center, analy-

ses made with GIS were used in order to determine the service area and access within walking distance of sport facilities (Timur et al. 2011). Another current study draws transportation network in Istanbul and then visualizes with Cytoscape network visualization program. In the study transportation in Istanbul is being examined how these transportation facilities work with together (SayaSaya NET, [05.07.2012]). The project of “Modern Denemeler 5: Aşı” examines dam lakes established in Turkey as well as Ankara cultivars forefathers of these dams visually via satellite images and aims to reveal physical reality of vaccine (Modern Denemeler 5: Aşı, [05.07.2012]). To increase the urban life quality of geographical information systems is regarded as so significant in terms of disaster and emergency management, too. GIS constitutes the essential data and information infrastructure of disaster and emergency management process. The usage of GIS in the field of disaster and emergency management in Turkey has become popular in recent years. Before disaster: GIS is being used for determining the areas having disaster risk, recording disaster types, times, durations occurring at certain areas, determining the infrastructures and facilities that may be damaged due to disaster and determining the facilities to be used during disaster and the drinking and utility water resources people need, establishing shelter and similar places and

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planning food resources (Akkoç, 2011). According to these information GIS has a great contribution for creating realistic disaster scenarios. GIS enables general procedures such as database inquiry and statistical analyses visualize incomparably together with geographical analyses provided by maps (Westminster College, 2010). Especially it has a great usefulness with regards to local administrations in Turkey same as in the world. When the truth that is how the social networks one of the important factors of today’s internet usage and the users become effective in contents management is considered with the effect of GIS in terms of analyzing urban life, it appears as an effective solution for planning, strategy and public relations. In this essay it is aimed to search configurations of interaction and interface design to be made on maps for the sake of participant attended geographical information system being more effective in terms of both planning and also public about the recreation areas in Istanbul for the purpose of healthy and sustainable urban development as a continuation of the mentioned improvements. The study to be discussed by means of user focused data entry provided by Web 2.0 offers that database thought to be constituted on digital maps including recreation areas in Istanbul will be processed by local users through Participant Attended Geographical Information System (PAGIS) and web-based (WebGIS) applications and thereby will be made available. 2. RELATED WORKS 2.1. Participatory GIS Participatory Approach is one of the most significant elements of collaborative information. This element describes regulating the collaborative learning environment so as to enable the activities take place simultaneously within the group, among the groups or among the individuals. In collaborative learning group members enable data flow sharing subjects such as what they know and which information they need. What is expected from individuals is to collaborate with the group and being an active individual in interactive environments PAGIS (Participatory Approach) system has been utilized in order to improve tourism of Abel Tasman National Park in Marahau, becoming a tourism icon in New Zealand (Hasse & Milne, 2005). It is decided that PAGIS based system is a more suitable method since it includes participatory approach and gro-

wing interests of settled communities. Searching tourism plan with PAGIS requires a collaborative and interactive process. In order to make participant process into community based process, study has been improved for the right calculation of the increase of heterogeneous structure’s interaction and communication. It is needed to collect data coming from multiple users, to analyze and to combine this data with opportunities offered by GIS. For the purpose of enabling more tourists to come Marahau, it is aimed map-based systems to be used over the internet. GIS searches out a study about the social effects of technology submitting spatial data analysis and cartographical information in order that tourists can understand physical environmental conditions in Marahau. In order to increase individuals’ decision-making process, participation and variety, PAGIS has been used as a method. Another example is about improvement of wetlands around Lake Victoria. Lake Victoria is the second biggest lake in the world supplying drinking water (Musamba, et al. 2011). However decreasing of wetlands around the lake makes it a significant research area. Changes between social-economic activities and land use have been observed. In the study conducted variables, cause effect relationships, values of each variable have been determined with Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). Land use types and land use changes have been obtained from satellite images using GIS software. With PRA, observations, quantitative and qualitative data have been collected by way of questions and information has been gained from participants on maps. Through participant communication and analytical techniques, variables, cause-reason relationships and value of each variable have been determined. Due to the space-time typology of GIS of which usage area has expanded in recent years, the concept of Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) has been added to the literature (MacEachren, 2001). This concept aims that context will be the same that is composed at the same place, same time or composed at the different place, different time. In his essay MacEachren(2001) emphasized geographical collaboration at the same/different times but at the same place. He narrows this frame and executes his study from the point of different place. In different place based studies, author needs a mechanism in which study groups are able to share information about that place. When we consider historical process, sending post can be given as a non-synchronous example and using phone can be given as a synchronous example. Today to make image/audio/video usable at the same time or different place is only possible with geographical collaboration. In the es-

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say the studies being for the users at different places is due to the necessity. Starting point is to determine the requirements that consider the perspective of individuals at different places. The example of Churcher and Churcher (1996;1999) is one of the first commercial GIS applications, connecting group tools together and common internetbased (MacEachren, 1998). This application can be considered as an electronic white board. Multiple users can draw their decisions about the plans. Besides imagining on maps and exchange of views, it enables system database and component based systems improve for multiple users before “initial public offering”. 2.2. WebGIS Web based GIS system enables spatial information to be shared through networks. Since distribution of spatial information varies in several fields, users can easily access these information and perform inquiry and analysis. When usage of WEBGIS is summarized briefly within the scope of Construction and Urban Informatics 2003 “E-Municipalism and E-Engineering 2nd National Conference Releases” it is seen that GIS/ WEBGIS have 4 components including web server, application server, map server and data server (Yapı ve Kentte Bilişim, 2003). By means of allowing communication between map server and web server after client contacts with GIS program, client processes its demand and begins to produce results. At the end of this processing, accessing to spatial information becomes available. The object of CommonGIS, a project example carried out with respect to WebGIS, is to improve data analysis with modern map-based applications by using extensive user potential (Andrienko, et al. 2005). CommonGIS should be dense as a software running on web. Since it provides GIS (Geographical Information System) functionality, it may also be considered as an interactive Web-GIS system. Also it is a device searching for geographically referenced static data. It provides this functionality over interactively and dynamically convertible maps. It performs this function technologically over Java Applet. 2.3. GIS and Data Visualization Collaborative visual environments have been designed as Real-Time Environmental Information Net-

work and Analysis System (REINAS) for data analysis of geographical systems (MacEachren, 1998). This system gathers distributed data, combines in database and supplies common information. It has three processes. These processes are observation, prediction and analysis. Visual geographic environments are also formed for the usage of participants at different places. This situation bears the need of visually designing an environment. Environments for single-user are tried to be made as a common field for sharing of multiple user such as audio, video, chat rooms. Data visualization is required to complete certain processes before submitting to multiple users. Analysis, evaluation and synthesis are some processes that need to be computed before visualization. After completing these processes data need to be visualized, drafted and then computerized properly. In Spatial Informatics, transition from data to information can be observed with a two-stage spatial approach (Güney, 2009): 1. Data acquisition: It is the process of acquisition of spatial data in different formats such as vector/raster with various high-technology measurement methods and techniques, quality control, processing and utility of these hybrid data, in other words it is the process of transferring from data to information. 2. Geoprocessing: It is the process of visualization processes such as 2B/3B/4B/nB map production, internet maps, multimedia assisted map, virtual reality, three-dimensional terrain models, temporal-spatial inquiry and analysis, interpretations, decision support and decision making processes, sharing on internet, rapid and quality service rendering; in other words it is the process of transferring from information to knowledge. Map is an important investigation method in terms of information it provides (Musamba, et al. 2011). Aerial photographs provide prominent visual information about common field. Aerial photographs of Abel Tasman National Park in Marahau submitted to participants, colorful stickers, and simple questionnaires enable local participants to think the old and future plans about this region. This method is also an entertaining process for the participants. This method is formed with PAGIS data. In the study conducted for Abel Tasman National Park in Marahau 4 different participant profiles were determined. Questionnaires consisting of questions

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about socio-economic and demographic information were given to the first participant group. Maps were given to the second participant group and in-depth interviews were conducted and plastic papers were put on maps. Participants marked key positions of the map and added their problems and future plans about the mentioned position to the notepapers. Three different colorful stickers were given to the third participant group. They were asked to determine three things about what they like, what they do not like, what they expect, what they scare to happen in the future and then mark them on the map. Information gathered were submitted to the forth group participants. The reason of this was to determine the proper design of PAGIS according to the feedbacks provided through analysis. Information gathered from different participant groups about Abel Tasman National Park in Marahau was determined with visualization methods without making difficult the understandings of the users. The purpose of using Participatory Approach Geographical Information Systems (PAGIS) is to gather values, thoughts and expectations for future of the participants about the mentioned place. This information is gathered from the map exercises of the participants. While GIS forms more general user information, PAGIS includes the information that the local user gives about that place. 2.4. Usability in GIS Software processes have significant stages. Early prototype is one of them. In this stage, conformity of software to the user interface and design errors are determined. The next stage can be regarded as the final state of system including prototype results. This stage is improved paying attention to test results. CommonGIS project offers some other titles unlike GIS (Andrienko, et al. 2005). In the research conducted it is discovered that users need some feedbacks in order to understand the newly added tools. In a three-stage test conducted for CommonGIS new tools are presented to the users for trials (Andrienko, et al. 2005). In the first stage information about interactive features of CommonGIS was provided to 9 users. In the second stage it was asked to the same user group whether they remember the taught features one month later. The third stage was performed in such a way that it was checked by 200 users on the internet. It is observed that users from the second group used new tools better than the third group. This is because whether the third group could not find sufficient information from internet or they did not read or se-

lected trial and error approach. This proves that there are different users group. This test may be explanatory for the subjects such as error ratio, total number of answers, wrong answer percentage. With usability tests, it gives information about the clarity, ease of use and attractiveness of the project. 2.5. Recreation Areas and GIS Pace of life of urban individuals increases due to the modern life. For a healthy physical and mental life, people need have time for relaxation and entertainment. In this sense indoor and outdoor recreation areas that people use in towns have become very significant places. These areas can include athletic fields, swimming pools and several plays such as tennis, volleyball, basketball, hockey, football, and badminton as well as skating rinks, picnic areas, and open air theatre. However due to the rapid urbanization mentioned above, parks, sports and playing fields planned for recreative purposes and other similar facilities in towns are not elaborated or paid attention sufficiently. When environmental factors and individuals’ requirements are taken into consideration, it is unavoidable to benefit from GIS based applications. While data gathering, analysis and evaluation-suggestion stages increase the usability of these areas, a participant assisted study fulfills the needs with WebGIS and PAGIS. First of all recreation areas in Istanbul should be classified according to spatial features, nearness to people should be evaluated and they should be analyzed according to general features, planning procedures and standards with the help of GIS. Then by using PAGIS method, a participatory approach should be developed and right solutions should be sought through interactions. In a study conducted, current infrastructure of Elazığ city center for sports and recreation areas, which are developing rapidly, was tried to be analyzed with Geographical Information System (GIS) (Üstündağ, et. al. 2011). Following the search while a partial homogenous structure was observed in the distribution of sports fields in Elazığ city center, a research area, a heterogeneous structure in the distribution of recreation areas took attention. According to the legal planning infrastructure while sports fields are scattered throughout the city, a reactive area division is not made in city plan. In the study conducted it is revealed that in five-year development plans walking trail, racing track and

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bicycle paths and recreation areas need to be considered in urban areas. In another study conducted in Çankırı city center, analyses made with GIS were used in order to determine the service area and access of sport facilities within walking distance (Pekin et. al. 2011). As a result of the analysis analytical results in proportion to population such as distance between these areas, distance of people to these areas were obtained. The study suggests that demographic structure of town, public demands and planning criteria should be taken into consideration for sports field planning to be performed in Çankırı Province and areas should be rearranged by taking into consideration the condition of sports field in the town, too. 3. EXPLORING FURTHER INTERFACE DESIGN SOLUTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE PAGIS INTERACTION When the truth how the social networks, one of the important factor of today internet usage, and their users become active in content management is considered with the effect of GIS in terms of analyzing urban life, it appears as an effective solution on the subject of planning, strategy and public relations. Here this study aims to search arrangements for interaction and interface design to be made on maps for the purpose of participant attended geographical information system about recreation areas in Istanbul being more active both for planning and also for public for healthy and sustainable urban development as a continuation of the mentioned developments. In this study it is aimed that users who share on internet based map interface will create a database about defined and undefined recreation areas in Istanbul. It is expected that three effects will occur within the aims of the project in which participant attended GIS will be discussed in terms of interaction and interface design. It is also expected that project will contribute to people’s detail and effective information sharing about recreation areas directly on current map information systems. Database created should have information that can be used by local administrative in terms of rendering service and followed and should be meaningful. Also it should be provided that database created by the users can be used and followed by people. Improving healthy life and living quality, using of recreation areas more effectively, making Istanbul people contribute for composing urban information system, strengthening communication between local administration and people are among indirect aims of the study.

3.1. Method Users benefited from participant design studies for the purpose of examining interface and interaction design criteria with the help of the system through which they send and receive data about the areas defined in town or areas used by people for recreation propose as an alternative. During the workshop studies to be conducted by an interface designer team and expert-level users group who would use the system, design requirements for current system and special design criteria were determined and design solutions were generated. Being a participant design group working for the purpose of determining the requirements and design of the project as well as interface and interaction solutions, 2 city planners and 5 interactive media designers met two times a week for a month in total for 8 workshop studies. Workshop studies were carried out in laboratory environment, recorded with video and voice recording device and all ideas and determinations produced during study were listed. A trial research model was tried to be set in terms of user satisfaction with prototype interface designed according to design criteria determined at the end of this process as well as usability procedures. 3.2. Results In collaborative learning, group members ensure data flow by sharing subjects about what they know and which information they need. This situation raises the need that different users are required to reflect their point of views at the point of how maps, words, graphics, images should be. Therefore visual map interface prepared with geography collaboration should enable image/audio/ video to be used at the same time or at different places. It should comprise interface solutions that enable local participants to transfer information about the said area with the maps developed with satellite imagery, colorful stickers to be added and comment fields supporting the interaction. Design requirements of map interface to be developed are as follows: a. Thinking interface design in the context of social interaction, b. Obtaining and separating all data on interface properly, c. Taking the right decisions for visualization, visualizing with specific (accepted) methods,

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d. Ensuring an artificial environment required for interaction, e. Composing interfaces that can be changed according to the user, f. Improving specific tools designed for accessing to the related information, Expected results of the project can be explained as follows: a. Local administration’s having up-to-date and detail usage information about the areas defined for recreation purposes, b. People’s using this as a communication tool between local administration and himself on subject base after a while and sharing detail information; forming a comprehensive information network in time, c. Strengthening the communication between local administration and people, d. In which level these information can be used by local administration for planning in terms of measuring the quality of feedbacks provided from database created by the users appears as another success criterion in long-term. 3.3. Discussion As a result of participant design studies conducted it is concluded that developing a map based interface for more effective usage of recreation areas in Istanbul will be available by fulfilling practical requirements of the last user. It is required that city planners and interactive media designers should provide participant communication of trial maps created at workshops design requirements are determined. It is tried to visualize geographical collaborations at different places on these maps as web-based. It is decided upon that how last user’s values, feelings, and expectations about recreation areas should be visualized on map exercises. Conformity of trial map interfaces at this stage and what may be the design errors are determined. Various subjects such as information to be submitted to the last user, metadata and interfaces about this, how these will be visualized, scenarios about this, how the distributed data will be supported and how local people will be incorporated to the process during information retrieval. It is seen that users need feedbacks so as to understand the newly added tools. According to the results of analysis, evaluation and synthesis obtained at the end of participant design

studies, the importance of clarity of interface and ease of use is understood and it is decided to pass to prototype process. 4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK The study to be conducted with user focused data entry provided by Web 2.0 offers digital maps to be processed with PAGIS method for recreation areas in Istanbul through local administrations and then to be made usable. In literature any solution seeking with regard to the recreation areas developed benefiting from PAGIS and web 2.0 advantages with the help of participant design work and GIS is not seen. This suggestion enables city planning to be associated with GIS that provides map-based information as a practical way. Prototype that will be formed with design solutions obtained at the end of participant design criteria will be tested with Thinking Aloud method and then its statistics will be checked. The prototype is to be undergone user testing through the Thinking Aloud method. Being an important assessment method in terms of interactive media design especially for preliminary design process, the Thinking Aloud method is also used for assessment of GIS (Heere, 2006). Heere is studying on how thinking aloud system is used over ownership maps on old atlases by individual users. In the said study it is considered that users use maps for specific purposes and thinking aloud method is used to observe whether the map fulfills the purposes. In this study thinking aloud method will be conducted with 10 different users who use indoor and outdoor recreation areas in Istanbul. The target age group is 20-40 year-old people and it will be worked with 5 women and 5 men. During studies tasks will be given to the users and in the course of conducting this task it is expected that users share what they think and their experiences and their performances will be recorded with voice and/or video recording device. The most significant information source for measuring the effectiveness of the project, firstly as a test-purpose and then will be brought into practice, is to keep online usage information as processable. As is known internet is being formed intensively by users in our day, systems storing statistics such as Google Analystic, Mashable, Alexa provide important information about user activities. The said information is frequently preferred for research purposes besides commercial usage. Boudreau carried out “google analystics” supported analysis in order to examine the effects of virtual learning areas and

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observed users’ technology usage behaviors (Boudreau, 2011). In this study firstly prototype and then usage statistics of the project potentially conducted will be examined and then it is measured whether the general aim is fulfilled or not. Also users’ information about from which regions they are, in which fields of interest they consider and which demographical information they have will be observed on the system as a tangible context printout. As mentioned above project have three processes. At the first process conducted research and questionnaire results were evaluated with participant design studies. The second process is to compose

a prototype over these evaluations. The efficiency of this prototype will be observed with thinking aloud method. When the cyclic design process reaches the sufficient maturity, the third process will be broadcasted for test-purpose and sites providing statistic information as well as tangible data regarding usage will be kept. Within this context, resources to be used for the evaluation of indicators are considered as specialist views produced during participant design studies, user feedbacks to be arisen with thinking aloud method and statistics about users’ activities. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

6. REFERENCES 1. Akkoç. (2011). Türkiye’de Afet ve Acil Durum Yönetiminde Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemlerinin Kullanılması web page, Homepage. (05.09.2012) 2. Andrienko, G., Andrienko, Natalia., Hans. (2005). GIS for Everyone: the CommonGIS project and beyond.  (20.09.2012) 3. Demirtaş. (2012). Salt Online web page, Homepage. (05.07.2012) 4. Güney. (2009). Yükselen Mekânsal Bilişim Farkındalığı. Akademik Bilişim’09 – XI. Akademik Bilişim Konferansı Bildirileri. 11-13 Şubat 2009. Harran Üniversitesi. Şanlıurfa. 5. Hasse& Milne. (2005),  Participatory Approaches and Geographical Information Systems(PAGIS) in Tourism Planning. Tourism Geographies. Vol. 7.No. 3. 272–289. 6. Heere. (2006). The Use of GIS with property maps. e-Perimetron, Vol.1, No.4, Autumn 2006 [297307]. 7. Kozikoğlu.,Nircan. (2012). SayaSaya web page, Homepage. (05.07.2012) 8. MacEachren. (2001). Cartography and GIS: extending collaborative tools to support virtual teams. Progress in Human Geography. 25,3 () pp. 431–444. 9. Musamba., Ngaga., Yonika., Boon., Giliba. (2011), Impact of Socio-economic Activities around Lake Victoria: Land Use and Land Use Changes in Musoma Municipality, Tanzania. J Hum Ecol. 35(3): 143-154. 10. Pekin.,  Timur., Kuş Şahin., Dağıstanlıoğlu., Çalt., Pektaş. (2011). Çankırı Kenti Spor Alanlarının Yeterliliği Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. Timur ve ark. 2011 8(1). Türkiye. 11. Ülkenli. (1997), Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemlerinin Ülkemizde Kullanımı Üzerine. Sanal Gazete. Yıl 2. Sayı 4. İstanbul. 12. Üstündağ., Devecioğlu., Akarsu. (2011),  Elazığ Şehir Merkezinde Spor ve Rekreasyon Alanları Dağılımlarının Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Metodu ile Analizi. 6th International Advanced Technologies Symposium (IATS’11).  16-18 May 2011. Elazığ, Türkiye. 13. Westminster College. (2010). What Is A Geographic Information System?. (20.09.2012) 14. Yapı ve Kentte Bilişim Kongresi. (2003). E-belediyecilik ve E-Mühendislik 2. Ulusal Kongresi Bildirileri. Trabzon; Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, 2003: 4-6. 15. Zijdeman. (2011). Personalizing Virtual Learning Spaces: A Participatory Approach. Faculty Scholarship (COE). Paper 17.

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A Critical Review On The Fundamental Orientation Of The Information Society Res. Asst. Güçlü GÜNEYİ Anadolu University Graduate School of Social Sciences Communication Design and Management [email protected]

ABSTRACT As a consequence of technological development, the communication process reached high limit coverage and effectiveness with the diversty of its application areas. Due to the the interaction and integration of technology and communication, the society which we live in is widespreadly called “the information society”. Altough the term “information society” also includes the basic claims of liberal disclosure focused on progressive positivsm that points out mostly the functional and utilitarian dynamics of social change, it has some literally marked contradictions to criticize. Therefore, it is essentially important to reconsider the orientation of the information society on the basis of the Critical Theory and this paper is a argumentative exploratory research relied on Critical Discourse Analysis including secondary textual resources. The conceptual and practical disparity between knowledge and information and the qualification of globalized culture and economy policies are among the primary argumantations of the review. Introduction: The time period we live in is called with various names such as technological age, computer age, whilest the social structure in that time period is continuously called information (or knowledge) society, communication society, etc. Although there are different terms defining the age and the society, all are intended to reveal the dimensions that the interaction and integration between technology, information and communication have achieved today. As a result of the subject’s contemporary relations with the objects in the internal and external environment; in other words, the system of modern cultural patterns revealed through the applications of the knowledge acquired by the human as a result of their relationship with the world and other people to the communication channels and contents through the technological skills that the human develops within the actions of controlling their environment and harmonizing it to themselves is recognized as “information age-information society”. Even if, however, the first impression of the term “information society” sounds quite affirmative and progressive, as it appears to contain the natural orientation of the human to know, it stands out that it has some aspects open to criticism, considering

the dynamics of global reconstructions focused on the circulation and ownership of the information. In this sense, it can be primarily questioned whether the intricate relationship between technology, science and communication will really create an equivalence table in the “knowledge acquisition process” of the human. Approach & Method: The starting point of the review is based on the thematic contents and related topics of the course titled “Information Society and Communication” received by the author during his postgraduate studies. In addition, the author’s interest in Critical Theory and qualitative research has a significant impact on the determination of the review method. In this sense, the study is an argumentative exploratory research structured by following the steps of Critical Discourse Analysis method. Van Dijk (2003) has defined the primary objective of the Critical Discourse Analysis as “to focus on the ways discourse structures enact, confirm, legitimate, reproduce or challenge relations of power and dominance in society”. (p.352) Hence, the term “information society” appears as a phenomenon open to be re-

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viewed and interpreted both in positive and negative senses as a structure shaping and regulating the social life.

the conventional rules used in the data processing, and the facts given externally that the individuals reach without endeavoring”. (tdk.gov.tr)

This also indicates that Critical Discourse Analysis methodology adopts the main objectives of the Frankfurt School philosophers who established the Critical Theory -from Max Horkheimer to the followers like Jürgen Habermas and many others- and has developed the theory with updates and additions such as the fact that “Critical Theory should be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity” and that “Critical Theory should improve the understanding of society by integrating all the major social sciences, including economics, sociology , history , political science, anthropology and psychology”. (Wodak and Meyer, 2008, p.6)

At this point, we need to determine the source and direction of the conceptual change from knowledge to information. Considering that the direction of change will differ based on the impact of the central reference point, perspective and time, the semantic changes occur especially among close terms. In this sense, finding that “the sign is not just the same of the thing it represents, but it resembles the object with one of its aspects or properties and functions as a sign” (Büker, 1992, p.13) brings along the result that the sign can be used with its denotation by the interpretive source, while it can gain or even produce connotations based on the social structure and individual attitude where it is in. The verification of these connotations can be found in the semantic harmony between the image and symbols in accordance with the social consensus that manifests itself within the cultural period abovementioned. In such case, we get the chance to verify the finding of Tekeli (2002, p.21) that “it is required to establish the relationship of the symbolic forms of the information and the meanings attributed to them with the objective social structure”.

In addition, it has been agreed upon using flexible and various methods and data collection techniques in the application of the Critical Discourse Analysis. As the primary factors having an impact on this, the scope of the subject that the researcher studies on with the approach adopted and the perspective tried to be presented by the researcher’s position. According to Wodak and Meyer (2008, p.19) and Van Dijk (2003, p.354), “macro” levels of review such as globalization and information, “meso” levels such as employment and political campaign, and “micro” levels such as personal memories and group membership require different methods. This study is a macro level study and tries to reply the basic questions of the qualitative research as “what, how, when, and where – its essence and ambiance” (Berg, 2009, s.3) intended for the term “information society” through textual elements compiled by means of secondary literature review. Knowledge vs. Information: In the Great Dictionary of Turkish Language Association (TDK), the terms “knowledge” and “information” borrowed from English are defined by several items listed under the title “knowledge/information”. It can be seen that the terms knowledge and information have gained synonymy and are being used interchangeably today, have basic differences as it can be concluded from the definitions: “Knowledge: the name given to all of the facts, truths and principles that the human mind can comprehend; the intellectual product generated as a result of human mind’s work; the facts learned by the individual by endeavoring through learning, research or observation”, and “Information: all or a part of a stimulating case that serves as a hint or a key; the aspect of a group of objects, of which is eligible to be classified related to its quantity; the meaning attributed by the individual to the data making use of

From this view, -with its epistemological meaningthe information takes a position of informational images that mostly feature with the ability to be counted and conveyed, while the knowledge is directly related to rational activities of human beings such as learning, having an opinion and thinking. Ultimately, “the thought that cannot be seen through experimentation and observation” (Denkel, 1984, p.13) is conveyed to an information level suitable to the objective reality as symbolized by numeric data. This gives birth the progressive positivist paradigm which differentiates the technological knowledge from other types of knowledge. Although technology makes it easy to get knowledge and information, it mainly brings along some troubles and threats with respect to its use. While the technology gets integrated with scientific knowledge during its production phase that also includes its own telos, it turns out to be a distribution and control channel for informational purposes when it achieves a widely mass use in contrast. With this feature of it, technology has focuses on creating a perception of equivalence by “putting the ambiguity away from the meaning blocks included in an opinion retaining the information and making it processable in the eye of the masses and expressing the terms using 1 and 0” (Drucker, 1996, p.267). The comprehension of the established equilibrium may become easier through dealing with the main conditions and reasons that emerge inside the information society.

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Transition to the Information Society: Toffler (1996)’s opinion that “the knowledge recognized today as a simple skill is actually a result of a cultural development for thousands of years” (p.37) has been shared by many philosophers who look at human life through a historical perspective. The review of the dynamics steering the generation of the Information Society also suggests the historical development of the communication as a phenomenon. Having set out his life as a “natural being” and gone into agricultural society and permanent settlement from the phase of a “gatherer society” where he used to use the natural resources without any interference, human beings fulfilled the requirement of establishing social order and developed the technology and division of labor organizations for agricultural production. In this sense, the control system brought about by the storage and distribution stages of the production led to a hierarchical management and a construction of a formal communication system. Thus, communication became a political tool used in the management of the production relationships and social activities. With increasing number of production and settled communities, urbanization and trading among cities started. While the rural areas where the agricultural production is performed, was obliged to meet the requirements of the urban population, the life style and capital ownership based on the increasing demands of the cities led to popularization of “the consumption culture”. With the movement of the rural population to the cities, the form of government changed, and the democratic sense and the nation-state model where the cities got together became widely accepted. In addition, the labor and raw material struggle burst out in the fabrication order established for varied and increased requirements and to carry out the production to meet these requirements. This also led to security threats against the mass production organization. The activities ranging from the local to the global activities for the security and spread of commercial networks resulted in the consolidation of the capitalist order as a result of the two world wars under the leadership of the developed countries, and the economic infrastructure system was established so as to implicitly include the ideological superstructure. This can be summarized in the following statement of Castells (2005): “The underlying theoretical perspective of this approach suggests that the societies are organized around the human processes structured with production, experience and power relationships historically established. The production is a human activity of

appropriating it, turning it into a product for the benefit he has, consuming a part of it (unevenly) and storing surplus value for investment for a variety of objectives and purposes as socially predetermined on the material (nature). … The institutions of the society including the controls involved in the power struggle, restrictions and social contracts were all established to strengthen the power relations existing in each historical period.” (p.18) Looking closely into the material culture changes during the transition from a gatherer society to an agricultural one and from an agricultural society to an industrial one, it is seen that the changes take place at the central point of increasing knowledge (especially scientific knowledge) acquisition and the variety of technological tools. In line with the means of transport developed as a result of the scientific and technological progress that have reached the steam-powered machines and the machines with hydraulic mechanisms as driven by the physics science, which was followed by manufacturing petroleum products as driven by the chemistry science and ultimately to the electricity, the communication patterns that began with the drawings on cave walls, which was followed by clay tablets and papyrus and reached books and newspapers with printing, and telegram and telephone with electricity achieved a gradually increasing velocity and capability of circulation. The large scale change in the communication technologies and emerged computer technology within the last half-century led to a political, economic and cultural reorganization of the social order. The properties of the new (information-based) social structure whose impacts have started to be observed since the earlier 20th century, have been outlined by Masuda who is a headmentor of the subject, as follows: (ctd. Karaduman and Karaduman, 2004, p.245): An information services infrastructure including networks and databases will be established, The leading industry will turn into information industry, The political system will have a full democratic structure with the autonomous involvement of the citizens, The social structure will include multi-centered and complementary volunteer groups, The human values will be switched from material consumption to success-oriented fulfillment values, and the ultimate goal will be to establish the global society.

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Even if, however, the reorganization as stated by Masuda is a kind of a route map that describes an ongoing and incomplete process, it maintains its activity based on the infrastructure of the former industrial society. With radios, televisions and finally the computers, the mass society and the consumption phenomenon have achieved such a level so as to move the society to the area of “a consensual hegemony” highlighted by Gramsci through the organized message contents transmitted by mass media (Oğuz, Class Lecture, 2009). In this sense, the dependence of individuals on the mass media and therefore, the human-machine interaction out of the intense working hours increased in proportion to that it gains “regeneration”. Likewise, Alakuş (1991) has reinforced the assessment of such dependence of people on the information with the statement “that the people are mostly informationconscious, the necessary technological environment required for the control of information, the information economy emerged as a field of industry, and the purposes and value judgments of the people are developed as oriented to information”. (p.11) Information Theory: This social habit that enables the human organism to be remotivated in time and place also makes possible the organization of biological arrangement. At this point, the physics and chemistry knowledge has moved to the third phase as driven by biology science and gained a multidisciplinary dimension. As it has been revealed in the statement of Naisbitt (1990) “we also consider the society that we are currently creating as a whole of perfect information flow systems that constitutes the basic structure of biological organism. … The biology, as a metaphor, recalls an information-oriented, micro, inner-directed, harmonizing and sacred phenomenon” (p. 219), the capitalist order represents the promotion of a paradigm positioned to control and regenerate the ambiguity and the instability of the (neo) liberal system in accordance with its purpose to continue its existence . This orientation shows an equivalent coherence to the perspective of the Cybernetics approach called “the science of the sciences” to transform the closed systems to open systems through feedbacks away from noise. Such parallelism can be seen in the argument on Cybernetics suggested by Wiener (1982): “According to our thesis, the physical behaviors of the organism appear to be completely in accordance with the function of new telecommunication machines in terms of their controlling the entropy through feedback. ... Whether live or not, the externally received messages are not clear and final and therefore, they are transformed into other forms by their internal powers. This information is ready for use in other stages of the procedure. … Noone

is normally aware or conscious of such a behavior order, so the role that the society needs to play in the habit analyses is disregarded. If the physical behaviors of the individuals can be regarded in this respect, then the same can be applied to the organic behaviors of the society.” (p. 40) At this point, it has been clarified that the “Information Theory”, which tries to define the information flow between the human-machine and machinemachine, rather than human-human (interpersonal) interaction, is based on the mathematical communication model that Shannon has developed on “the amount of message produced by the source, maximum information that can be transmitted by the channel, correction of the errors that occur during transmission and more efficient coding” (Postman, 1993, p.109). This model has been established on providing the equality of creating the same meaning in the recipient’s dissection of the information sent by the source and criticized as “it stabilizes the roles of the source and the recipient”. (McQuail and Windahl, 1997, p.30) As it is seen, the Information Theory simplifies the ability of the human mind to produce meaning within the communication process to the opinion that the cybernetics approach considers the human organism no different from the machine, and accordingly, it is concluded that “no differentiation has been made between a piece of message that has no value on the part of the recipient and a message of great significance” (Yüksel, 1989, p.22). However, the Information Theory appears to prove the argument that the redundant efficiency can be increased considering the social structure as a result of the dominance of the current technological dependence and liberal economic conditions (which means the relationship between the service industry and consumption patterns). Thus, it appears to be more suitable to accept the requirement of the structure we are currently in to define as an “information society” not a “knowledge society”. The interaction facilities of the multimedia environments as provided by the computer technology appear to have gathered the impacts of the conventional mass media as well as to have provided the individual participation of the audience in the network by improving the channel’s capacity. With such technical advantage, the network society turns out to be a “trust network” that offers such features to enhance the solidarity thanks to the “way of interaction and information transmitting mechanisms rather than the actors and places” as stated by Tekeli (2002, p.27). In this sense, the information flow provides such properties that increase the authority’s capability of actual movement and control through the central computer networks, while reducing the physical security requirement of the political power by enabling the individuals to feel close to each other within the “virtual commu-

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nities”. According to Castells (2005), there are four basic resultant socio-cultural templates (s.496):

new contents, it also reforms the social mobility in forms and strategies of reflected modernization.

It is a common social and cultural differentiation that causes the local disintegration of the users/audiences/readers/listeners. (In this template, it is of importance that the leisure times can be rearranged for the individuals or a certain scale of virtual communities.)

The relevant developmental stages are the findings of the reflexivity status of the information society as driven by globalization as much as it can describe the cycle of the activities of the liberal modernization approach to ensure the continuity of the capitalist system. The “continuity” fact as provided through information change is suitable for the dominant ideology’s discourse representing the “spontaneous, stabilized and continuous evolution process within peace” (Güvenç, 1997, p.25) in cultural respect. In this sense, the “Language-Game” approach of L. Wittgenstein could give meaning to the paradoxical motion of the liberal system. Raised within the transition periods from modern to late-modern (or to post-modern) and industrial society to information society, the philosopher initially adopted the positivist method; however, he suggested revolutionary ideas on language and discourse towards the end of his ideological life. Derived from Wittgenstein, “the usages of language affect the perception of reality”. (Tunalı, 2009, p.63) Hence, the communication has secured its feature of being the most effective cultural instrument that forms the subject.

It is the increasing social stratification among the users. (It makes it easy to divide the regions and individuals with a different level of market potential and to attain the consumer more effectively.) It brings along the transmission of all messages within the same system and integration of all the messages within a common cognitive framework. (Exposure to the messages transmitted from different sources causes obscurity of the content). The most important aspect of the multimedia is that it confines the majority of the cultural statements within its own area by maintaining all of their differences. (This means reconstruction of the information blocks put out of their contexts within a virtual reality, while indicating a completely new symbolic environment.) Inquiry of the Information Society Discourse: As it is seen, the information flow is of principal importance in the institutionalization of the social organizations; however, this has caused the emergence of a two-way problem and moved that the spread of information brings along the results in respect of “non-knowing” rather than knowing onto the discussion level. The variety and redundancy of the circulating information have provided new and improved opportunities to get the information and which, in turn, resulted in a case leading to “unawareness” for the masses. The fact of “reflexivity (reflexivity: the coreferential relation between the subject and the information)” shapes the dynamics of global reconstruction. Beck (1999, p.110) has listed the developmental stages of these dynamics simply as below: The more modern the society becomes, the more knowledge it creates about its own institutions and structures. The more knowledge the system gets about itself, the more it manages to change the global institutions and social structures with the scientifically mediated reconstructions. While the knowledge determines the decision-making processes of the individuals through providing

This brings along the requirement of, the verification of the discourse based on the technological determinism and free market economies within the information society and a qualitative analysis of the dimensions of the circulating information rather than a quantitative analysis. Once again, Beck (1999, p.122) has listed the hazardous elements of unawareness that may be dominant in the information society as: Selective reception and transmission (falsification of the opposite information within public and commercial fields), Uncertain knowledge (in both theoretical and practical areas of use), Mistakes and errors (within the phases of production, distribution and use) Inability to know (repressed orientation), Unwillingness to know (desensualization). How such factors that prevent or restrict the subject from acquiring knowledge are eliminated in a discourse intended for the mass can be clarified through the “hegemonic articulation” perspective of Laclau who has tried to analyze the liberal discourse supporting the status quo by means of deconstruction. According to Laclau and Mouffe

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(2005), partial factors that do not have any “universal” properties on its own are articulated to each other and gain functionality and take the role of supporting the benefits of the discourse they claim to represent (p.18). In other words, the capitalist system creates a reference point with the symbolic articulation of the terms being scientific, technology and democracy. Therefore, current social perception adopts the sense of “information society” where the limits are drawn by the liberal opinion and locates on a central position of its own accord. The discourse that the information flow will stabilize the social equilibrium and remove the existing social inequalities presents an ideologically reversible appearance considering the ongoing power struggle on the ownership of information. Having tried to describe the information society discourse at three main levels, Hamelink (1986) has revealed the disinformative determinations of the liberal utopia with his comparative assessments (ctd. Traber, p. 8, 13): Economy: The information society will end the centrality of the capitalist and industrial production with a service market free of monopolization.

Economy: The information technologies being used support the capitalist market generations with the segmented and controlled production processes and cost-effective labor planning.

Politics: The information society will transfer the political power from the power elites to the citizens with its structure to encourage the involvement in decision-making process.

Policy: The centralized control feature of information technologies have made the peripheral activities more easily controllable during the action.

Culture: In the information society, the heavy working conditions have relieved and transferred to the technological systems. Thus, in the remaining leisure times, the different cultural actions for the individuals will be performed.

Culture: The technological systems cause a cultural synchronization instead of personal autonomy. The cultural service market pulls the people apart from their environments that have made them adopt a sense of self.

Conclusion: As the final grounds for the review; the cultural knowledge acquisition model that enables motion by focusing on the information units consisting of representative values based on the consensus between the subjects, keeps its pioneer position as the natural resource enabling the continuity of the communication process, and also constitutes a platform for the criticisms at the ease of the center of paradoxical issues such as the circulation of the information both in public and corporative spheres and accordingly, the simplification of information to a meta status directly from the change value it bears, in contrast of the disclosure “a globalization order organized excluding the ideology” that the liberal approach claims and argues for at first hand. In other words, the knowledge acquisition process is qualitatively disrupted against the variety and spreading rate of information. The remarkable point is that this appears to confirm the approaches, methods and discourses which the liberal perspective has criticized with reductionism due to their claims of “economic determination”. Consequently, rather than the knowledge in its conventional meaning, today the data and the information with a facility of circulation and a trading value are among the major sources that provide inputs and yield benefits for the large scale institutions and organizations that incorporate the information technologies on an information-based economic system.

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The Usage Of “Wireless Telegraph” Twitter As An “Alternative Communication Network” During And After A Natural Disaster: October 23, 2011 Van Earthquake Case Gizem Parlayandemir PhD student in Istanbul University, School of Communication [email protected] ABSTRACT The idea behind the internet was designing an alternative communication system in state of emergency – a nuclear attack. Alternative communication networks can compensate mass media in state of emergency such as natural disasters, big accidents, wars or other urgent situations. (Mc Quail, 2010: 16) Twitter founded in 2006 in USA as a micro blog site that lets its users to share the content. This content is limited to 140 characters per twit and can be shared with certain people- interpersonal communication- or with public –mass communication- depends on users’ choice. Twitter was used not only in 2008 US elections, but also in social events such as Arabian spring or 2011 Japan Earthquake and 2011 Van (Turkiye) Earthquake. The terms are not certain such as social media, new media, and social networking sites for twitter. On the other hand, Postman establishes a relationship between telegraph and television. In this research, with the idea of reinterpreting of this relation for telegraph and twitter, the twitter usage in 2011 Van Earthquake is analyzed according to information reliability and information-action ratio. KEYWORDS: “October 23, 2011 Van Earthquake”, “Twitter”, “Information Reliability”, “Information Action Ratio” PREFACE Three traditional forms of communication are: Interpersonal communication, group communication and mass communication. It is assumed that the first two forms are face-to-face and their occurrences rely to beginning of humanity while technology makes mass communication possible. However as mass communication could come on the scene, interpersonal and group communications have been expanded via technology. On the other hand group conferences or connecting other people via satellite refer to interpersonal communication or group communication instead of to refer mass communication. Mass communication is more related to sending message instead of sending and receiving it and so is not directly related to feedback. (Vivian, 2009: 12) As technological opportunities increase, feedback – that can be interpreted as one of the ways to prove the knowledge that is transferred via communication- became possible in mass communication. When talking about communication, besides technology, the main improvements in history such as discovery of script or the taming of the horses and

pigeons gave chance to humans to get the news across. The lack of control over the circulation of news’, the possibility of interception of news so the knowledge -if the news are true- by enemies, caused the discovery of codes, censorship and disinformation. In addition to these, history of speculation and the importance of getting information dates back to the ancient ages. But with 15th century, the circulation of news fastens. This case grows stronger with innovation of Gutenberg, the printing revolution. Thereby newspapers came into existence in Europe as such gazette in Italy, occasionnel or canard in France. Canards involve both real and fiction news and people do not interest in canards to reach the truth, the reality, they do interest in the effect, the symbols as present reality shows. (Jeanneney, 2009: 22-25) In 17th century, there is another risk for reality: secret advertisement (ibid: 33). As WW II, facts like disinformation, manipulation, gray propaganda went up. Nevertheless as the Gulf War, the new argument is hyper-reality. New Technologies for communication and getting be informed, changed production and consumption processes in media (McNair, 2002: 188). It can be argued that the up-shift in technological level

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makes the media more free, however the technological innovation relies on to capital, so this argument is still weak. When the topic is Internet, the changes in the production and consumption processes are more certain. 3-W is a tool that is able to change all structures of both forms of communication. For example, either interpersonal communication via e-mail or group communication via group meetings gains speed. But the main impact of internet is seen on mass communication that results the speed of dissemination of news and knowledge gathers. As the greater impact, the greater debates about this fact. These debates can be analyzed in two perspectives: The utopias and the dystopias. Utopias take bases accessibility and interactivity of this new medium. “The internet is not owned by any state or multinational company, and no state or company can control its use.” (Mc Nair, 2002: 188). Moreover, according to dystopian approach, lack of control over dissemination of information results disinformation. The origins of these opinions can be found at older dystopias about communication and societies such as Orwell’s and Huxley’s. Postman compares dystopias of Orwell and Huxley and states the present situation is more likely to justify Huxley’s argument. In 1984, Orwell’s argument was societies would be controlled with censorship mechanisms and lack of information. In contrast with this idea, in Brave New World, the argument was the information glut would cause the lack of spotlight on current issues (Postman, 1986). Today the speed of information that 3-W oriented media allows and results this information glut. In this article, the mentioned information glut will be analyzed in two contexts: “Information Reliability” and “Information-Action Ratio”. When “the information-action ratio” is the case, the concept the “context-free information” that Postman mentioned is conspicuous. The telegraph made a three-pronged attack on typography’s definition of discourse, introducing on a large scale irrelevance, impotence, and incoherence. These demons of discourse were aroused by the fact that telegraphy gave a form of legitimacy to the idea of context-free information; that is, to the idea that the value of information need not be tied to any function it might serve in social and political decision-making and action, but may attach merely to its novelty, interest, and curiosity. the telegraph made information into a commodity, a “thing” that could be bought

and sold irrespective of its uses or meaning. (Postman, 1986: 65) (…) But most of our daily news is inert, consisting of information that gives us something to talk about but cannot lead to any meaningful action. This fact is the principal legacy of the telegraph: By generating an abundance of irrelevant information, it dramatically altered what may be called the “information-action ratio.” In both oral and typographic cultures, information derives its importance from the possibilities of action. Of course, in any communication environment, input (what one is informed about) always exceeds output (the possibilities of action based on information). But the situation created by telegraphy, and then exacerbated by later technologies, made the relationship between information and action both abstract and remote. For the first time in human history, people were faced with the problem of information glut, which means that simultaneously they were faced with the problem of a diminished social and political potency. (Postman, 1986: 68) Baudrillard states that since news directly neutralize or destroy the meaning; there is a distinct and compulsory relationship between news inflation and meaning deflation (2008:116). As the meaning vanishes and silence becomes resistance, the system requires expression, meaning production and participation (ibid: 124-5). In contrast with the situation that world becomes news area and the emotion of people about effectiveness decreases after telegraph (Postman, 1986:70), the emotion of people about effectiveness all around the world may be increased with new media tools. This is the case especially in natural disaster or famine. In this article, the usage of twitter after a natural disaster will be discussed on several examples. Mc Quail states, alternative communication networks can compensate mass media in state of emergency such as natural disasters, big accidents, wars or other urgent situations. As cell phones and Internet are used by a large public and as this fact creates networks within this public, the alternative communication can be possible. However the motivation of USA while designing the Internet in 1970s is to provide an alternative communication system in case of a nuclear attack. (Mc Quail, 2010: 16) The information transfers between personal media, alternative media, and mass media are interesting (ibid: 137).

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Twitter Stories Several tweets that caused different events or social and personal changes are published in Twitter’s stories page as examples (Stories, 2011): • Hüseyin Çakir heated his dorm room with a Tweet.

• Burberry shared the looks before they hit the runway. • Rebecca Chiao reveals harassment while protecting victims. • Ravi Pina shares train information through crowd sourcing and Twitter.

• Michael J. Paul and Mark Dredze reveal secrets to public health hidden in plain sight.

• Mike Massimino Historical Tweet: Sent the first Tweet from space. From orbit: Launch was awesome!! I am feeling great, working hard, & enjoying the magnificent views, the adventure of a lifetime has begun!

• Myra McEntire wrote a book and landed a movie deal.

• 12 May 09佳栄 Fishermen sell their catch before their boats return to port.

• Jerry Rizzo tweeted his way to a dream job in the NBA.

• Mark Slavonia challenged Lance Armstrong to ride the world’s steepest road.

• Mark Hayward used Twitter to help save a dog’s life.

• Bullet Skan found safety when the revolution in Tunisia reached his backyard.

• Amanda Hesser and Merrill Stubbs created a hotline for home cooks.

• Reporter Brian Stelter lost 75 pounds on Twitter. • Wael Ghonim became a symbol for the #Jan25 pro-democracy movement in Egypt.

• Chris Strouth tweeted “sh*t, I need a kidney” then got one.

• Sohaib Athar inadvertently live-tweeted the raid on the Osama bin Laden compound.

Van Earthquake Case

• Kevin Durant played a pick-up game of flag football with his followers.

In the following section, four situations will be discussed as examples:

• Dan Thompson, Sophie Collard and Sam Duckworth organized clean-up efforts after the UK riots. • Daniel Morales reunited with his daughter after 11 years. • The world embraced Japan during the March 11 earthquake and tsunami. • Julia Probst relays what the players are saying but the fans can’t hear. • Stefanie Gordon shared a chance encounter with a space shuttle.

1. The rescue operation after the earthquake that came into scene via Twitter 2. The housing campaign for survivor families started by Ahmet Tezcan-Journalist on Twitter 3. Fake Tweet 4. People who did not stick their promises for fund drive although they involved to the campaigns and promised for aid.

• Okan Bayulgen and AKUT saved two people trapped by the earthquake in Turkey.

The Rescue Operation

• Peter Shankman landed a surprise steak dinner.

The contents that are carried and transferred over Twitter transform to news when they are involved to the mainstream media.

• Aaron Durand saved his mom’s bookstore with a Tweet. • Roger Ebert gained a new voice after losing his ability to speak. • Chad Ochocinco surprised 100 of his followers with an invitation to dinner. • Maureen Evans delivers recipes to the palm of your hand. • Dr. Willy Mutunga opened the African courts to direct communication through Twitter.

“The social sharing network” Twitter compiled the trending topics of this year all around the world. One of the top ten trending topics is the Van Earthquake; one of the most important stories is the rescue operation after the earthquake that came into scene via Twitter (Van depremi Twitter’ın ‘ilk 10’ listesinde, 2011). In the site the rescue operation is told of:

• Queen Rania al Abdullah started a global conversation (with a sandwich).

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Immediately following the 7.2 magnitude earthquake in Van, Turkey, TV news anchor

Okan Bayulgen used Twitter to send along emergency information. One of his followers sent him an address of people still trapped. He passed the message to the AKUT relief workers who immediately went to the address. Two hours later they were able to dig through the rubble of a collapsed structure and rescue two people. (Stories, 2012) The mentioned rescue operation could be eventuated after the content produced in alternative media was announced by mainstream media. “My house is yours, Van” (“Evim Evindir Van”): Ahmet Tezcan-Journalist The higher number of followers in Twitter maintains the information that is spread can be reached to a large public. The twitter users who are able to reach a large public are also people such as culture industry components, artists, journalists, intellectuals, politicians, activists, et al. who are able to find place in mass media as opinion leader or express their ideas whether these ideas are supported or opposed. Moreover, there are certain users who are famous only in twitter and cannot be identified via their users’ names such as allahcc (the holy God) that are followed by 189.268 users.

forwarded it to all people in her list. “Just one hour later after earthquake, there was a twit spread in twitter. It was piercing shriek for help. A message begging for help, saying he is still trapped.(…) It is certain that even if trapped, he was able to use his cell phone. (…) After half or one hour, it was clear that the person who begged for help was liar and his aim was to attract attention for Van and also for Adanademirspor [a football team in Turkey].” (Şarman, 2011). Hence as parallel to the context-free information is important for only attracting attention, the information that is not proved, that is not reliable is taken serious and conveyed. Information-action ratio: I was drunk, I can’t remember. Not for Twitter but for Van earthquake, an important example is even the given information transforms to campaigns, there are some people who are involved to these campaigns and promised for aid did not stick their promises for fund drive.

When the case is Van earthquake, one of the important campaigns “My house is yours Van” is started by Ahmet Tezcan a journalist-novelist in twitter with the quoted twit. The campaign is supported not only in twitter but also in different mediums and also by the government. As part of this campaign, sixty earthquake survivor families were housed with the Istanbul Governorship’s coordination (Depremin ardından İstanbul›a göç, 2011).

It was announced that in the Television Program “Kardeşlik Zamanı- The Time for Fraternity” that was broadcasted in order to collect aid for people in Van by two mass media channels Kral TV, STV and 100 local TV channels, 65 million TL was collected. Also in another mass media channel- Kanal D’s studio, 19 channels made co-broadcasting called “Van için tek yürek- Altogether for Van” and it is declared 62 million TL is collected. However some promises were not sticked. One of most tragicomic example is a businessman who declared 3 million TL aid canceled this aid and saying he was drunk when he promised, he cannot remember if he promised. Another businessman who promised 1.2 million TL aid told his uncle did not let him to aid so canceled his promise. 5 days later, after the broadcasting of programs, the realized aid was the 1/3 of the promised amount (Depremzede belediyeye kesinti, 2012).

Fake Tweet:

CONCLUSION

The absence of control mechanism and editorial work that satisfy the speed in the process of conveying information also can result to encounter problems frequently that are also possible in conventional, traditional communication networks such as manipulation, disinformation, fake or untrue information.

The purpose of this study is to discuss the usage of Twitter after October 23 2011 Van Earthquake as an alternative communication network within the contexts of Information reliability and Information Action Ratio. In the first section the twitter’s place in communication history is discussed and several cases in Twitter mentioned as examples.

For example there is a journalist red a fake tweet thought that information is true and retweeted it,

In the second section Van Earthquake Case is viewed from several topics as how the earthquake

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becomes news, as how reliable the people give information, as pioneer campaign leaders who are also the opinion leaders and also people who did not stick their promises for fund drive. The main difference between twitter and traditional media is the position of audience. The unreliable content is conveyed by followers/audiences and hence they transform a more active, participant role. Hence in this simulation space, the emotion of people about effectiveness is increased as they feel they are taking a position. When analyzed for reliability, the proof mechanism is still traditional mass media. The twits are secured or confuted via traditional media. Finally, the topics that are not involved to this study such as repeated, replicant twits, or the similarity between twits and scare headlines can be subjects for further studies about the twitter fact.

REFERENCES BAUDRILLARD, J. (2008). “İletişim Araçlarında İçin İçin Kaynayan/Patlayan Anlam” Simülakrlar ve Simülasyon. (O. Adanır. Tr). Ankara:Doğubatı BRIGGS, A .&

COBLEY, P. (2002), The Media: An Introduction, Briggs ve Cobley (Ed.), Edinburgh: Pearson.

JEANNENEY, J.N. (2009). Başlangıcından Günümüze- Medya Tarihi, (E. Atuk; Tr.), İstanbul: Yapı Kredi. KARS, N.

(2010). Haberin Tarihi, Kuramları, Söylemi ve Radyo-Televizyon Haberciliği, İstanbul:Derin.

MCNAIR, B.

(2002), “New Technologies and Media”, The Media: An Introduction, (Briggs ve Cobley, Ed.), Edinburgh: Pearson.

MCQUAIL, D.

(2010). McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, London; Thousand Oaks, Calif. : Sage.

POSTMAN, N.

(1986), Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business, NY: Penguin Books.

VIVIAN, J.

(2009). The media of mass communication, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 9th Ed.

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Online Resources Depremin ardından İstanbul›a göç. (2011, November 18). January 19, 2012 Sabah Gazetesi: http://www. sabah.com.tr/Gundem/2011/11/18/depremin-ardindan-istanbula-goc Depremzede belediyeye kesinti. (2011, January 12). January 19, 2012 Radikal Gazetesi:http://www.radikal.com.tr/Radikal.aspx?aType=RadikalDetayV3&ArticleID=1075327&CategoryID=77 Okan Bayulgen and AKUT saved two people trapped by the earthquake in Turkey. (2011) January 19, 2012 http://stories.twitter.com/en/okan_bayulgen.html Stories. (2011) January 19, 2012 Twitter Sitesi: http://stories.twitter.com/ Şarman, H. (2011, October 25). Başı Kesik Tavuklar Misali. January 19, 2012 Habertürk Gazetesi: http:// www.haberturk.com/yazarlar/hande-sarman/682395-basi-kesik-tavuklar-misali Van depremi Twitter’ın ‘ilk 10’ listesinde. (2011, December 02). January 19, 2012 Radikal Gazetesi: http:// www.radikal.com.tr/Radikal.aspx?aType=RadikalDetayV3&ArticleID=1071314&CategoryID=81 Twitter allahcc account. (2012). January 19, 2012 Twitter: https://twitter.com/#!/allahcc

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Online Public Relations in the European Union Iulian Veghes PhD candidate at University of Bucharest [email protected] ABTRACT This paper will describe the status of online communication among organizations in European countries. It will expose an approach in online public relations across Europe, and also across different industries and different types of organizations. The analysis is founded on the empirical study Online PR in EU, focused on how PR specialists use the online communication across European Union. This study reveals what kind of online communicational tools are used in public relations in EU, the gradual importance (from the usage point of view) of different communicational platforms but also communicational patterns used in online PR. We know that public relations use online communication for targeting audiences and having dialogical communication with them. But how do they communicate, how do they interact, which communication tools do PR specialists use, how are these used in different communicational cultures and how are these used in one type of organization or another? We need these answers in order to analyse the actual way of doing public relations, we need these answers in order to have the possibility to examine the evolution of PR and, at the same time, to have the possibility to analyse the impact of online communication on PR activity, PR processes and PR workflow. INTRODUCTION Online communication has stopped being news for years. The fact that it has been influencing the daily global village since the early 2000 is well-known. Just like individuals, another important actor of the current society, organizations have adapted to this type of communication, trying to use its advantages in order to achieve their communication targets. Except for some occasional studies, focusing on a specific component or a relatively small area, or which have extended online communication divergently, there are no relevant studies, especially at the European level, which can clarify the manner in which all types of organizations (companies, public administration, NGOs) use online communication tools in order to send their message to the target audience. The purpose of the research Online PR in EU is to compensate this lack of data regarding the manner in which organizations from European countries (the 27 countries belonging to the European Union to be exact) are using the Internet for communicational purposes.

Before expanding on this topic, I would like to define the concept of online public relations, as seen by Veghes/Grigore: “Online public relations are the segment of public relations which uses computer networks as means of message transmission/reception, with the purpose of reaching an audience which has access to this means of communication, in addition to the public relations general objectives”, (Veghes/Grigore, page 5, 2003). METHODS The research was based on a segment of at least 50 public relations specialists from the first 17 largest UE countries (countries with population over 5.500.000), and of at least 30 specialists from the countries which fill positions from 18-24 (countries with more than 1.000.000 inhabitants). For countries on places 25-27 (countries with population under 1.000.000) there has been an orientative segment of at least 10 specialists. All in all, our research was done on 1435 respondents, out of which 1425 have given useful answers, 1411 PR specialists in the European Union,

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the equivalent of one answer for every 348.000 people (out of the total 491.000.000 in the UE). Estimating the number of specialists in the organizational communication field (one public relation specialist for every 2000 people), we could count approximately 245.000 UE specialists. Therefore, one specialist has answered the survey for every 147 public relations specialists on the research website - www.onlinePRinEU.org. Due to the great number of responders – over 1400 – and the large number of analyzed countries (27) this research is one of the few researches at an European level (here we can emphasize European Communication Monitor study). However, in the case of EU Online PR, this research grants us a useful picture of the online public relations situation among the European Union member countries, offering a palpable argument to those who wish to analyze the public relations activity after the apparition and extension of the Internet. In addition, it is a useful instrument for those interested in the manner in which a certain market, organization or industry communicates online. RESULTS From opinions according to which public relations have been modified after the Internet sprang up to the opinion that the online has irrevocably changed the public relations activity. As happens in any field, we have different approaches in radically different cases. Opinions are just opinions, so we will leave it to this field and the ones working in it to decide the impact the online has on public relations. In the previously mentioned study we asked the question: “Do you consider that online communication has modified the way your organization sends its message to targeted audience?” 87,8% answered affirmatively, saying that it has influenced it a great deal. Do you consider that online communication has modified the way your organization sends its messages to targeted audience? Internet has modified very much much little almost not/not don’t know / don’t answer

Response Percent 49.1% 38.7% 8.7% 1.9% 1.7%

At the same time, the question “Which percent of your public relations activity involves Internet communication?” has received the following answer: 63,5% said that they undergo more than 51% of the public relations activity on the Internet. This denotes both a significant modification of the public relations process and the profound way in which online communication has influenced PR. Which percent of your public relations activity involves Internet communication? Percent of Online PR Activity 0.00% 1 - 25% 26 - 50% 51 - 75% 76 - 99% 100%

Response Percent 0.1% 12.70% 23.8% 33.5% 24.2% 5.80%

From the data above we can say that, at least at the European Union countries ‘level, online public relations are perceived as having a major impact on PR, impact which we can also identify in the large percentage of people who use the Internet as the main means of communication in public relations. The apparition and development of the Internet also had other outcomes which have affected public relations. Therefore, to the question “Do you consider that appearance and the development of Internet contributed to an increase of importance of PR activities in your organization?” over 81% answered affirmatively. Do you consider that appearance and the development of the Internet contributed to an increase of importance of PR activities in your organization? Response Percent 81.2% 11.4%

Yes No Don’t know / Don’t 7.4% answer

One of the explanations for this change is the modification of individual expectations regarding organizational communication. In order to analyze this

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aspect, we asked the following question to public relations specialists: “Do you consider that the Internet has increased the communicational expectations of some of your targeted public regarding your organization?” The answers are quite eloquent: 84.2% think that expectations regarding organizations’ communication activity have risen a lot. Do you consider that the Internet has increased the communicational expectations of some of your targeted public regarding your organization? Response Percent 39.8% 44.4%

Response Percent

2.1%

The difference between the public relations funding assigned to online and offline communication is quite noticeable, since the activity of public relations takes place mostly online. In about 45% of the cases, the funding for online communication is between 0 and 25% of the total PR budget. We could notice that quite a small part of the budget allocated to PR goes to online communication compared with the communication channels which are usually used (in more than 63% cases Internet usage in PR activities is over 51%). What percent of your PR budget is directed to the online communication?

0% 1 - 25% 26 - 50% 51 - 75% 76 - 99% 100%

It is quite interesting to observe the main reasons for which online communication has become the main communicational component for the public relations activity, as listed by the public relations specialists from the European Union countries: communication speed (73.1%), direct communication with the target market (69.4%), interactive communication (42.2%) and cost/result efficiency (39.9%). Which of the following aspects supported by online communication do you consider to have (if any of them) the greatest influence in modifying the communicational way of your organization? Please select maximum 3 of them.

Yes, in a very important way; Yes, in an important way; Yes, but not in a significant 12.2% way; Almost no/None; 1.6% Don’t know/Don’t answer.

reason for which they use online communication in the public relations activity communication mix.

the possibility to directly communicate with targeted public; speed of communication; interactivity of the message; the multimedia capabilities of the message; increasing role of the PR department in organization; cost savings; efficiency (from the cost/results point of view); Other

69.4% 73.1% 42.2% 22.1% 10.7% 28.4% 39.9% 0.9%

In the pie-chart below we can notice the manner in which organizations from EU countries are using online communication platforms in order to reach their communication targets. This is based on daily, weekly, monthly or very rare online activities.

Response Percent 4.3% 42.5% 27.5% 17.7% 6.8% 1.1%

One of the explanations for this situation might be the efficiency of online communication. Approximately 40% of the respondents consider the efficiency (from a cost/results point of view) as an important

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email 18%

third part blogs 3%

newsletter 3%

forums 4%

corporate blog 4% audio/video IP 5% extranet 5%

website 16%

chat 6% mailing lists 6% social media 13%

intranet 9%

Based on the gathered data we can conclude that, for the public relations practiced in the European Union, online communication has significantly changed organizational communication. This has also happened in other countries with significant Internet access, but, through this data, I can only refer to the coherent and normal conclusions I can draw based on this research. The communicational PR model has been drastically changed in such a way that, in order to reach the wanted target, organizations have come to use online communication predominantly. The main reasons for which this type of communication has been quickly adopted are communication speed and the possibility of direct communication with the targeted public. Because of this, we realize that after the classical model in which organizations used to send a press release to the mass media, hoping to get their message through to the targeted audience, nowadays organizations are organizing their activity towards a direct communication, acting up as a genuine direct mass communicator. Despite the fact that this was sensed before this research began, I wanted to emphasize the modifications which sprang out in this field as direct result of the Internet rising. It can be easily noticed that

online media 8%

the public relations activity has moved mostly on the Internet (around 65%). Furthermore, based on this research, we can deduct this online activity of the PR specialist on various online communication platforms, as is the case with the previous chart. According to this research the main communication tools used in online PR are: e-mail (18%), websites (16%), social media (13%), intranet (9%), online media (8%), mailing lists (6%), chat (6%), extranet and voice/video over IP, each with 5%. The relatively short time allocated to corporate blogging communication (4%) is surprising, considering the fact that many online PR guides regard it as one of the main components of the online communication mix. Another surprise was the time allocated to newsletters (3%). ‘ONE OF MANY’ MODEL Through this research we also wanted to verify the usage of the so called ‘One of Many’ communicational model. But what is ‘one of many’? In the “network society” (Castells, 2009), seen as a global network built from different sized subnetworks, we can identify a large amount of network

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email website social media intranet online media mailing lists chat extranet audio/video IP corporate blog forums newsletter third part blogs

social systems - NSS - (for instance Facebook). In the NSS, the actors (individuals, organizations) have equal communication powers. They are in the end just a simple page (one of the many pages available within a NSS) and they are using the same programmed rules and communication systems in order to interact with the other actors within the NSS. The actors are represented through their pages, through their messages and through their connections (network). Having the same way (we can see it as equal) of expressing and interacting we can see this organizational communication shift as a paradigm shift in public relations. The communication is not one-way anymore - it’s interactive. The communication is based on a horizontal spread of information. The discourse adapted to the level of “friendly discourse” - everybody has a network of friends. So, it was only natural to adapt and communicate appropriate with them. And so did organizations. The organizational discourse is moving very fast from the old official, institutional discourse to the commonly used friendly approach. This kind of old discourse is seen as an inappropriate and unadapted way of interaction from other actors. These could finally use their power (Castells, 2009): exclude (reject) the “unadapted actor” from their network. Even when organizations adapt and act as regular actors from the discourse and interaction points of view, they are still organizations ruled by economic, social or/and political interests. These organizations were just forced to adapt their communication skills to the new changing society and to their rules.

We have verified this communicational approach through Online PR in EU study. More than 65% respondents selected this communicational model as a relevant one. CONCLUSION To conclude, I would like to bring forward, the efficiency of the online communication, alongside the mentioned factors (communication speed and the possibility of direct communication with the targeted public) which led to online embracement. This could be easily noticed through budget distribution. Even if it’s the main activity of the PR of today, online communication receives only 25,4% from the entire PR budget. Redundant as it may seem, one important purpose of this research was to verify the efficiency from the perspective of results/costs and the degree of online communication financing compared to other PR communicational activities. In this material I have presented only a few general conclusions arising from my research, Online PR in the UE. The materials will be published on the dedicated website - www.onlinePRinEU.org – along with the final results of the research. Relevant conclusions will be reached in future materials.

REFERENCES Castells, M.,

Communication Power (2009). Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Morris, M. &

Ogan, C. (1996). The Internet as a Mass Medium. Journal of Communication 46(1).

Veghes, I.,

Grigore, B. (2003). Relatiile publice si publicitatea online, Polirom, Iasi.

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The Use Of Photography In Journalism In The Process Of Technological Advances Yrd. Doç. Dr. Müge Demir Abstract: Mankind has produced innovations continuously from past to present, they have benefited from produce, and they have adapted to each new. Photography strengthening news, some times in front of, as appropriate going side by side with it, influenced by these developments and innovations. Now living in a fast change in the process of digitalization of culture, photography is passing from chemical to digital. With the continuous development of science and technology, being more and more modern with each passing day and adapting technology to its structure, transition to digital photography has brought some difficulties in the field of journalism. In the field of journalism, with respect to photography and photojournalism more reliable and bearing the nature of document in the past, different opinions and discussions appeared as well in the intellectual sense as a result of the intervention of technology. In this presentation, by giving examples from ‘video journalism’ emerging as a new concept in journalism with the digitalization of photojournalism, digitalized photography will be mentioned in the historical development, photojournalism evolving in professional aspects with the technology will be examined in ethical context. Key words: Photo journalism, technology, journalism, photography, video journalism. 1. Introduction Mankind has produced innovations continuously from past to present, they have benefited from produce, and they have adapted to each new. Photography strengthening news, some times in front of, as appropriate going side by side with it, influenced by these developments and innovations. Image obtained after long struggles and began to be used in news in the last period of 19th century, has become instant by means of technology. Since 1996, widespread developments in digital photography and printing technologies have been very important especially in the field of journalism. Today at a dizzying speed of technological developments, profession of photography and photo journalism have also undergone transformation with the digitalization of culture. Reliability of the photography which is in transition to digital, have become questionable than before with the effect of digital technology; the number of readers and viewers suspicious about the reliability and ethics of news has increased (Tiryakioğlu, 2009:304). In the light of all this information, in the first part of presentation, focusing on the historical process

of the photograph developed with the technology, changes in photography in this process are mentioned. Today everything has moved increasingly to the computer as a result of the development of photography in technical aspects, it is focused on how it affects the journalists in terms of professional aspects. One refers to how well they meet digital technology journalists in transition to digital photography and ethical context of developing technology examines the effects of the profession. It is mentioned that how do journalists think about digital technology, and effects of the photography living in transition to digital and developing technology on profession is examined in ethical context. Finally, examples from “video journalism” emerging as a new concept of journalism with the digitalization of photo journalism are given. 2. Photo Phenomenon To transfer of message in most clear and concise form to the target reader of the reporter, the most important element supporting text is visuality. This visuality offers the reader a summary of the event to be given as needed. Photograph on the news site and newspaper undertake this task. Photogra-

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phy allows conceptualization and permanence of information. Photographs are not fluent but they remain more in mind than moving images due to being actual period of time (Ayvaz, 2008:34). Applications in our country, in writing and even electronic media, photography is one of the important element strengthening news, some times in front of, as appropriate going side by side with it. About the human senses can not detect directly the outside world, nature’s unexpected chaos or about a world in which continuous changes arising from external groups, human has to be based on most accurate information which can be obtained. The most important tool providing certain information as well as the accuracy of this information is photograph. The word ‘Photograph’ made up of Greek words side by side “photoa” which means light and “graphe” which means writing. Although there have been several definitions for the photograph, the most obvious definition is as follows: The style obtaining objects as reverse images by means of ready to shoot machine with the aid of light and chemical substances is called as photograph (Gezgin, 2002:4). Although there are many discourses about the discovery of photography, according to the most widely accepted view, photography was found in 1839 by French Daguerre. However, it is known that French Niepce took first photograph before Daguerre. Daguerre who worked with Niepce has developed and patented the invention of Niepce. In 1839, French Academy of Sciences announced the discovery of photograph and determined the name of the technique as ‘Daguerrutype’(Ayvaz, 2008:28). The idea has gained dominance that photography use of which expanded depending on the development of technology is a communication tool providing aesthetically valuable images like picture. This case has caused different structures in photograph. The first structure of them, people advocating the idea that ‘the main objective is to save the images that make up the external reality’ have taken place and the development of photo journalism and documentary photography has been provided. 3. Progress of Technology and the Press Photography

Photography came into our lives from the second half of the 19th century, has shown a lot of technical development in the period up to the present day. From its invention to present day, photography has been one of the most widely used communication tools. Factor making photography so important is being a common language understood by everyone. Visualization has always been a need for the press. Before using of photography in the press, to meet the need for the visuality in media, visual elements supporting news like cartoon or drawing have been used (Altın, 2006:25). As in many new inventions, in the field of chemistry there were successful works by different people in different places at the same time in 18th and 19th century in Europe. Easy to use, light-sensitive films were made of. Photos taken with a long exposure periods of heavy machinery have become easy to carry with technical developments, thanks to photo-sensitive films photograph has become a complete communication tool. The most important of these developments were production of first handheld photo camera by the German company Leitz in 1925, and development of American George Eastman’s Kodak box camera in 1933 (Dilek, 1992: 275). In 1839, the image was printed on delicate glass or plate. With the invention of Daguerre, there was a transition from taking photo of stationary things to dynamic things. In 1842, German photographer Carl Steizner took photo of terrible fire that destroyed the city of Hamburg; in 1848, British Kilburn took remarkable photo of Chartistes meeting at Kennington. In 1840, Hungarian Joseph Pezval invented a dual decolorize objective with integrated optics which was 30 times faster than the objective invented by Chavalier (Kırlı, 2009: 60). First picture in newspaper belongs to a snake in pieces and it was in the form of a line. There was no news item in this cartoon image published by Benjamin Franklin in Pennsylvania Newspaper in 1750. It was accompanied by only a call to the newspaper. Under the picture appealed to readers, and especially the Americans: ‘Unite or Die’. During the century after the first testing image (line-drawing) had not been used in newspapers. The first newsworthy (line-drawing) was published in 1842 in the newspaper called ‘Illustrated London News’. A representative charcoal picture related to assassination attempt to Queen Victoria was reflected (Gezgin, 2002:4).

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In terms of today’s concept the great adventure of photo journalism began with taking the first quality press photo on October 14, 1843. Even if no newspaper published, the reason giving the quality of this photo in question is that the captured image is that of an event for the first time. In this photo, the representative of the Emperor, viewers of Consul General of France M.Lyrene signing a thousand-year peace treaty with the Imperial High Commissioner Ky-Ing is a French customs officer named Jules Itier who worked for Whampoa in China. Jules Itier influenced by the new technique known as “heliographie” of British scientist Sir Nerschel. However, Itier’s photos were able to take place only in photography books. First press photos have been used in the 1850s. The real news photography started with Roger Fenton in 1855. British Fenton and his assistant Szathmary-Popp displayed the Crimean War in 1856. Fenton’s Crimean War Photos were published in ‘Illustrated London News’, thereby the first step was taken to the illustrated newspaper. Rapid developments were recorded in the next years, after 1860 live issues’ good quality photos could be taken with commercial machines (Kırlı, 2009: 34).

tivities following the technology (http://fotografya. gen.te/issue-15/sayisal_fotograf.html).

Columbia University’s founder, Joseph Pulitzer, was recorded as a person who accustomed the readers to newspaper images in the 1890s. Taking place of photographs instead of copies of newspaper comic began after stereotype technique developed by Germans. When stereotype technique reached the usable form in photography, drawing method immediately left its place to photograph. Thereby, for the masses photograph became so much more real than the reality of pattern (Gezgin, 2002:3).

4. Digital Culture and Photo Journalism

There were technological developments especially supporting photo-correspondent in second quarter of 19th century. Anymore, digital photograph has been referred to computer technology. In the field of photography, thanks to photograph products ranging from machines to films, from objectives to photograph cards, sector organizations had grown a lot. By the 1980s, first personal computers were begin to be marketed and used in homes, has been a tool continuing to bring rapid innovation with changes and developments. It was sought ways of reducing visual world to monitor during ongoing developments in parallel, the relationship between photograph and computer began to result in visualization. Digital cameras were created as a result of research and development ac-

Photograph created as a result of the work of scientists has modernized with continuous development of science and technology with each passing day and has adapted technology to its structure. After the industrial revolution, in 20th century, the most important factor of the changes of journalism which has become a sector is digital developments. When we arrived to the present day, the most important development in this area is merging of digital photography with the internet. Photograph a common language has been a tool frequently used on the internet itself is a communication tool and a concept. The period of transition from chemical photography to digital photography has brought some problems. It caused some troubles for photo journalists both social and technological aspects. As a result of the intervention of technology to photograph, intellectual sense, different ideas and discussions have emerged. While photograph is more reliable and it has the nature of document in the past, it has begun to lose this property and question marks have formed in minds.

The dizzying speed of technological advances nowadays everything is going to be transported to computer. The most affected by these developments is photograph. Photo now has become a tool that serves all areas of daily life. In politics, art, science and developments in any environment it has led to the development of new understandings and areas. Since 1996, widespread developments in digital photography and printing technologies have been very important especially in the field of journalism. Every innovation in the field of photography brought about negative effects as well as the positive effects. However, the negative ones of the innovations always came to fore (Karahan, 1999:65). The factors such as incredible rapid development of internet in last 10 years, arrival of new and fast communication channels like 3G to our pockets, digital replacing film go beyond film technology by evolving in 10 years, the beginning of television into the internet and taking place of WEB TV on internet, increasing the importance of internet editions of newspapers against repression in the paper every day, has introduced profession of photo jour-

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nalism into an inevitable change (http://tolgaadanali.wordpress.com). Development has brought a new perspective to the understanding of the news set in the historical process. While it has been required that every event which was reported must be a convincing power, after that point, supporting of truth with photograph and informing the public have emerged as a new requirement (Bülbül, 2001:105). After photography and the internet, which have become indispensable reality in the newspapers, the concept of reality in photograph has become more intensively discussible with the development of the photography technique. Due to the, intervention which was more limited opportunities in the past, developed with digital technology, discussions related to photograph and reality have continued to be discussed after the digital photography. Photographers accepting chemical photograph as real, have perceived digital photograph as unreal with the involvement of computer, and have made a different approach, after a period have begun to see chemical photography as manhood and digital photography as non manhood (Altın, 2006:21). Adjustments on news photos in computer environment have created doubts related to reality of news in readers’ and viewers’ minds. Although the task of news photo is illustrating truth, thanks to the technology easy and quick changes have destroyed the credibility to the newspapers.

Photograph 3: Photo-reportage series “Street Boxers” of Ukrainian photographer Stepan Rudik consisting of 12 images.

In 2011, when the first photos taken with mobile phone by Damon Winter won ‘Pictures of the Year’ award, war photos published in New York Times amongst the world’s most respected newspapers created question marks in terms of ‘the future of press photography’. This situation has led to debate in the American press community. Some media organizations and associations defended that the images created by popular photo program installed on iPhone smartphone “Hipstamatic” with different photograph filters do not reflect true colors and can not be regarded as “photograph”(www.ntvmsnbc.com).

Use of photoshop-like software and digital cameras together with computers has become part of the profession of photography and journalism. Changeable property and in some cases even having a different feature of photos taken in digital environment have caused emergence of problem called digital manipulation. After the development of the technique of photo retouching, the idea ‘the photo can be deceptive’ was further strengthened (Tiryakioğlu, 2009:304). During 2010 awards of World Press Photo one of the world’s most prestigious photography awards, third prize in the category of sport of photo-reportage series “Street Boxers” of Ukrainian photographer Stepan Rudik consisting of 12 images was canceled by the jury due to manipulation in original ingredients of the photo (http://tolgaadanali.wordpress.com).

Photograph 1: New York Times photo journalist Damon Winter was awarded third place in Picture of the Year Awards with photos taken by iPhone using Hipstamatic photo application.

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increased 34 percent compared to the previous year (http://tolgaadanali.wordpress.com). September 11, 2001 attacks, the exhibition in 2002 named “Here is New York: A democracy of Photographs” turned into a book in contrast to uniformity of “official” discourse by Larger agencies had the opportunity to see the increase of amateur photographic testimony (Erol, 2009:38).

Photograph 2: The photo taken during USA perations in Afghanistan.

Photograph and systems of thought that are included in, changed in parallel with technological developments, while explanation of reality by photograph is the art or technique was the subject of debate, in recent years reliability of photograph have been the subject of debate and it has been a subject of debate that as well as reproduction, photo and computer where, how, and in what ways should be used together (Altın, 2006:1). Transmission speed of images and especially increasing number of camera in the form of mobile phone, have produced a new kind of amateur competition in terms of professional press and photo journalists. Web access has made every citizen a reporter directly. Those who open their own web sites, instantly view an event by mobile phones and publish on the internet are increasing day by day. Journalism and photo journalism that we do not know whether they will be better or go bad in the future, anymore we need to see as a profession related to everyone. In 2011, 491.4 million smart phones were sold all over the world, and emerged number in the study carried out by Gartner illustrated an increase of 58 percent compared to the previous year. While, Nearly 500 million smart phones with a good camera gave the opportunity to take photo and share instantly, according to estimates of photograph related web site 1000memories, the number of photographs taken by mobile cameras (smart phones)

This situation, which has a history of half a century, did not happen in 2001 for the first time. The published photo in AP previously taken by an amateur, illustrating a woman jumped out the window during a fire in Atlanta was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1947. Nowadays, with the development of new communication technologies and the photos on the Internet which can be seen all over the world at the same time, situation has become more advanced, systematic, instantly and global. Although bad quality of photos illustrating the earthquake in Japan in 2011, civil wars in Middle East, Libyan leader Gaddafi’s death moments in 2011, they were used by the major print media and internet media from time to time and this has led to an abundance of these types of photos. While some named this as birth of the “urban journalism” escaped from major media sources, others had become frightened upon the proliferation of these photos manufacturer vague, poorly documented, can not be confirmed reality from time to time. Due to the fact that images translated into digital data have become an open to all kinds of numerical intervention, the display of images on the internet has brought a new dimension to this situation. It has become possible to reach many different copies of the same work with researches on internet. For photo journalism adversely affected with the digitalization of culture there are also positive aspects of technological developments. Photograph a part of technological developments and science has been affected from all developments directly or indirectly. Computer and internet technology have provided photograph for different use and share opportunities. Digital photograph can be printed in home, printed through sending on internet to printing service, send with telephone, or can be saved in television, computer, telephone even in digital frame screen. Storage, transfer speed, and the ability to intervene in the image are remarkable (Erol, 2009:38).

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Digital technology has shown the growing impact of on photography, photography having an essential importance in life renew itself with technological advances. Users of photograph have to follow and adapt to these developments. Photo journalists should follow the technology, should unite the innovations with their efforts. Whatever the vehicles in photograph, important thing is the form of self expression of photo journalist. To reveal the work, he/she should know the technique very well as well as having the power of thought and interpretation.

Media organizations that lost their readers while trying to explain something in long form, attracts the attention of the reader with photo analysis. In photo analysis in which it is intended to exonerate the subject with less writing and more photographs like fotoroman and intended to to select the most striking ones and convey to the reader in most easily understandable form. Formerly one image was in one magazine related to news, now 15 images are given in website of the same brand and decorated with audio and other items (Bajac, 2011:104).

Digital photograph contributes to creativity positively. In 2011, Damon Winter who won “Pictures of the Year” award with the photo taken duing the USA operations in Afghanistan, is stating that newspapers put into practice new projects for the future appropriate for digital journalism instead of understanding of classical photography, photo journalists in the light of information gained from intellectual backgrounds and created his/her own style (www.ntvmsnbc.com).

This situation means according to some “imposed”, according to some “inevitable” transformation in terms of photo journalism. Photo camera having video capture capability was not in the class preferred by photo journalists, it may be included in the bag is meant that cheaper and lighter secondary or even tertiary body. However, after the technological developments due to the factors like more robust body structure, rates, the shutter life, anymore professional photo machines indispensable for all of the photo journalists have video capture property becoming the standard. In addition, with the emergence of digital cameras, like sharp increase in the number of photographer all of the world, it is suggested that development of machines will produce a new generation of videograf/photographer. The proliferation of talented people on this subject, who fail to adapt to shoot a video was not selected in the long run could lead to recruitment. Demand for both videos and photos from chief or the boss force photo-journalists to force because of the need to do both works together, one used to take still images will not be so easy to get used to video capture. In addition to the question “Do you have a photo?” posed by media organizations to reporters, in the future the approach “let’s look at the video” is expected to come (http://www.fotomuhabiri.com/fotokultur/videofoto/video.html).

5. Video Journalism and The Future of the Photo Journalism Beginning of change in profession of photo journalism with the digital world and age of internet can be clearly seen. Addition of video application to Canon and Nikon DSLR cameras two years ago, and finally addition of video application to new professional cameras D3s and Mark IV put on the market, how the profession of photo journalism goes to a point on the debate in recent years is a new dimension (http://tolgaadanali.wordpress.com). In fact, the profession called visual journalism contains both photograph and video images. Emergence of digital photography is based on video technology. Thus, new machines having good quality video shoot property should not be perceived as a surprise(http://www.fotomuhabiri.com/fotokultur/videofoto/video.html). Now, although new form photograph presentation which appear as ‘photo galleries’ in websites of newspapers is not widespread in Turkey, often applied in USA as ‘multimedia’ and from time to time supported with audio and music, anymore it appears as video mixing, and sometimes appears to be only a short video frames (http://tolgaadanali. wordpress.com).

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Photograph 4: New York Times project ‘One in 8 million’ winner of Emmy award in 2009 in the category of ‘New Approaches in Documentary’.

It is discussed that in terms of photo journalism, negative impact of technological developments on news cameraman as well as photo journalists. Photo cameras capable of high quality video capture more lightweight, inexpensive than video camera will directed media organizations to the equipment doing the job cheaper. Especially in near future agency reporters are likely to become both writer of news, and photographer/video cameraman. With the spread of internet and newspapers readable on internet, in recent years it has been seen that managers of major newspapers especially picture editors in the international news agency have started to applications of multimedia and videografi to adapt new media technologies and to market images better (http://www.fotomuhabiri.com/fotokultur/videofoto/video.html). International news channels like CNN and BBC are using both agency photos and their own videos as a source of visuality. Newspapers like New York Times and Washington Post are supporting the news on their web sites with short videos and photos in the form of slide show saved by their photo journalists. Reuters News Agency is presenting special news supported by video and photos to subscribers as a whole or presenting as slideshows containing plenty of photos, short written, ambient sounds in the

background prepared by photo journalists. It can be stated that best example of multimedia works emerged as a common product of the reporter, photo journalist, cameraman and producers is New York Times. In 20th century, New York Times that moved leadership in media sector to new media with photographs, sounds, video and graphics in multimedia pages, won Emmy award in 2009 in the category of ‘New Approaches in Documentary’. In the project carried out by well-known photo journalist Todd Heisler, multimedia producer Sarah Kramer, and photo editor Meaghan Looram, extraordinary stories of ordinary people who live in New York, photographed on the expression of their own voices were provided (http://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/ nyregion/1-in-8-million/index.html). Due to the changing concept of photo journalism, multi media like video, audio, is started to give importance at New York University of School of Visual Arts and other leading universities providing education on photograph and photo journalism International Center of Photography, MIT, Brooks, Pratt; emergence of agencies in USA like Mediastorm with beginning of buying multimedia containing video, audio by newspapers; sending of photo journalists to 3 month courses on video and multimedia by agencies like Reuters and AP; addition of ‘video journalist’ to staff of New York Times, Washington Post, even the White House; can be considered as evidence of this change. Due to this new concept of journalism started to emerge in the 2000s, and the explosive growth of

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as soon as 10 years, new generation photo journalists will be consisted of ones who can use ‘still’ and ‘video’ –‘the single frame photo’ and ‘flowing photo’ together, can comprehend, accept and implement innovations. Famous photo journalists will take place in history books, If they can not adapt themselves to technology. With photographers beginning to become a master in the field of video, same subject may appear as both TV documentary and photo-interview as in “One in 8 million” example of New York Times. Conclusion Relationship of photograph with the real world has survived from its invention to the present day with the passing of a process with technology. Immediately after the discovery of photography, it has revealed itself as a form of thought. Though rapid development of technology caused confusion and controversy in photography, it should be remembered that photograph itself is a technological development (http://alpha.med.ege.edu.tr/~etfo/ek.htm). Today, in photography, there is a transition from classical age to digital photograph, an age is closing and a new era is opening. Today, everything has moved increasingly to a computer, technical development of photography also affects journalists in terms of professional aspects. Technology, negatively affects the profession as well as a great contribution. Today, anyone who uses the Internet can be considered as journalist, it is difficult to talk about professional ethics. Thousands of images taken with cameras in mobile phones or digital photo cameras are being shared without giving resources and investigation.

During the photo shoot and printing process usage of computer programs developed with the advent of technology comes up in photo journalists’ professional ethics. Today, manipulations with the help of these technologies are confronted in many prestigious photo contest. In addition, it is also discussed that the need for photo journalists to follow the technology, otherwise the profession’s most famous names can be deleted in case they do not have competence. Direction of media organizations by photo cameras capable of high quality video capture more lightweight, inexpensive than video camera to the equipment doing the job cheaper is another problem result from technology. With the digital world and internet age, after the beginning of change in profession of photo journalism, a video journalism as a new concept and new generation of photo journalism are emerging. Works created by addition of multimedia like audio and video on single frame photos are used by the leading international news agencies and newspapers. In conclusion, video journalism selecting the most striking ones and decorating other items, in which it is intended to exonerate the subject with less writing and more photographs like fotoroman, will continue to convey the news to reader in most understandable form; photo journalists adapting to digital world are able to exercise their profession in an evolving, otherwise they will face the problem of not to be preferred by media organizations.

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(2001). Haberin Anatomisi ve Temel Yaklaşımlar, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara.

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Gezgin, S.

(2002). Basında Fotoğrafçılık, İstanbul Üniversitesi, İletişim Fakültesi Yayınları, İstanbul.

Tılıç, İ.

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(2011). Fotoğraftan Sonra, Analog Fotoğraftan Dijital Devrime, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul.

Erol, G.

(2009). Medya ve Etik: İnternet Haberciliğinde Nesnellik, Etik İlkelerin İçeriği, Uygulamadaki Sorunlar ve Televizyon Haberciliği ile Karşılaştırılması, Medya ve Etik Sempozyumu, Fırat Üniversitesi, İletişim Fakültesi, 7-9 Ekim 2009.

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Karahan, T.

(1999) Basın Fotoğrafçılığının Tarihsel Gelişimine Bir Bakış, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Dergisi, Erzurum.

Tiryakioğlu, F.

(2009). Haber Fotoğrafları, Manipülasyon ve Fotoğraf Editörlüğü, Medya ve Etik Sempozyumu, Fırat Üniversitesi, İletişim Fakültesi, 7-9 Ekim 2009.

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(2009). Dijital Manipülasyon ve Medya Etiği, Medya ve Etik Sempozyumu, Fırat Üniversitesi, İletişim Fakültesi, 7-9 Ekim 2009.

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(2002). Sayısal Fotoğrafa Bakış, Bilim ve Teknik Dergisi.

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(2006). Sayısal Teknolojinin Günümüz Fotoğrafçılığına Etkileri, Marmara Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Ens., Fotoğraf Anasanat Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul.

Ayvaz, Ç.

(2008). Türkiye’de İnternet Haberciliğinde Fotoğraf, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Ens., Fotoğraf Anasanat Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İzmir.

Kırlı, S.

(2009). Türk Yazılı Basınında Görselliğin Yeri ve Basın Fotoğrafçılığındaki Teknolojik Gelişmeler, Marmara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Ens., İletişim Bilimleri Ana Bilim Dalı, Doktora Tezi, İstanbul.

Web Resources

http://alpha.med.ege.edu.tr/~etfo/ek.htm



http://www.fotomuhabiri.com/fotokultur/videofoto/video.html



http://fotografya.gen.te/issue-15/sayisal_fotograf.html



http://www.journalismethics.info/online_journalism_ethics/photojournalism.htm



www.ntvmsnbc.com



http://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/nyregion/1-in-8-million/index.html



http://tolgaadanali.wordpress.com

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Cine-media: Perspectives on Ontological and Methodological Analyses Mustafa MENCÜTEKİN Marmara University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Animation Film Department [email protected] Abstract Parallel to the fact that digital technologies have gradually been enlarging their position along the individual and social lives of people, a radical definition change on the paradigm of cinema sector that pioneers the world of show and entertainment has been experienced: From a definition framing that cinema has been experienced exclusively as a mass medium along that a few entertaines the many through a stable and hierarchical system, towards a new definiton where cinema becomes participatory, nonhierarchial, mobile, mutable, and characterized by excess as opposed to scarcity. As cinema overflows the four walls of theaters by means of social cinemedia, this critical position that cinema has reached in daily life shall probably be the most significant factor along comprehending the definition of cinema and its future as a mean of media. To stabilize their relations with film audience, film studios have been seeking for original methods along which audience could actively participate in the process of filmmaking. The common structure of the new cinema environment that has emerged by the new media - the chief component of which is the social cinemedia - features less material, more flexible and widespread and less measurable characteristics. This original position naturally makes the qualities of production-distribution-presentation of cinema, its language and rhetorics, the boundaries of the affinity network of cinema with other possible social values and criteria become more and more obscure. This study roughly conceives to present an introductory scope for further mapping of the relations of cornerstone phenomena regarding to contemporary discourses of global cine-media research. Key Terms: Cinemedia, cinema, digital cinema, fan sites, Facebook, Wikies, Blogs, YouTube Prologue Nowadays, while we are living the first decades of a new millennium, as media is becoming more and more technologically dazzling, the role of technology based media is moving towards a more central point of our personal and social life. With the effect of multimedia culture which is becoming even more dominant day by day, internet based multimedia followers and generally the consumer society are being carried away in masses by the attractive and new statuses, and the charm of visuality provided by this media. In this course of being carried away, masses are face to face with the new semantics of the world of entertainment, information and consumption which shook the foundations of thought and action. The corporates of the information and entertainment industries, that are constantly forming partnerships, named the stage modern masses they called information society until now were going through as technocapitalism and gave them a new name: networked infotainment society (Kellner 2003:14) In this regard, when filmmaking and production is closely observed, it can be seen that from the first days the sector has been inclined to traditionally structuralize, and has most always been ex-

pensive and hierarchic. The term ‘social media’ brings to mind well known and widely used internet based and mobile technologies converting communication into dialogue that targets social interaction. With new technologies enabling content made by any user of technological devices to be freely created and shared, the media we knew has been converted to ‘social’ media. The prior communication tools provided by digital technology providing much slower and formal content (Taske and Plude 2011:38), and the boundaries of this digital socialness map being, “everywhere” internet and mobile technology can reach, makes it compulsory to evaluate this new concept of socialness on a global scale. This study aims to argue the nature of the interaction between social-global media mentioned above, which has very vague boundaries of influence-action, and the cinema sector within industrial and qualitative context. Towards Digitalized Cinema, Internet and Social Cinemedia With the quarter century history of digital technologies enabling new mechanisms and processes, and providing opportunity for vertical synergies between

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distribution and exhibition (Daly 2010:141) original alternatives to known methods of film production, distribution and exhibition are being talked about. Parallel to this situation, due to the changes caused by digital and computer technology in film production, distribution and viewing parameters, the paradigm shift that happened in the world of cinema has turned into a fact accepted by almost all actors of the sector (Bennett and others 2008:1). With digital technologies invading the cinema sector new film producing processes, new methods, extraordinary producers, original collaboration variations and emerging cinema societies have surfaced. It could be said that digital technologies have radically changed, and are changing the functionalizing styles of cinema’s creative and mostly amateur makers along with the nature of making cinema. An important role in this radical change experienced in general cinema culture belongs to the increase in the number of portable media players and distribution networks which became widespread over social media. Digital technology which has become even more effective in the cinema sector over the past 20 years, has changed film making and designing techniques that have been used all along, dominant visual esthetics concept, and film production and distribution on an unpredictable scale. Along with the ease and cheapness of digital distribution, and it forming a format ready to be integrated to the web, the definition of being a media consumer has changed completely in the 21st century due to iPod style credit card size portable media player devices that hold an amazing amount of content. Despite digitalization in the cinema strengthening the cinemagoers’ hand in choice and control of film consumption, the real innovation shines in options given, and are to be given to viewers out of cinema halls. Even though it is claimed that digital technology’s effect to cinema is limited to the distribution processes (Abrams and others 2001:85), Nicholson believes that especially when it comes to cinema, digital technology “offers new means to store data for the future, while acknowledging the unproven longevity of the technologies now in operation” (Nicholson 2010:30). When internet opportunities, which are usually interpreted as a kind of infiniteness, democratization and liberation are evaluated, it is seen that after the relation between Hollywood and the internet started with hesitation at the end of the 90’s, it started to soar with the number of cinema websites reaching hundreds before reaching the year 2003. On these websites that displayed fairly simple features compared to now, tens of thousands of movies could be fully

viewed from anywhere in the world where there was an internet connection. Nowadays, with computer usage becoming more widespread both at work and as leisure time activity in the information society, and with these two categories of life overlapping each other over certain interfaces, the effectiveness of internet and digital memories have exceeded every kind of impact and reached such a level that, “media memory” concept has replaced societies collective memory. The boundaries of social collectivity ultimately depends on the viewer mass that functionalizes internet media. Now, talking about the new relation shaping between film producers and viewers who can display electronic or local features is a common fact. And each of these new emerging relationship forms mean new gathering areas for new communities. Either in the production or consumption stage, the cinema experience has become more social and collaborative with the viewers that participate in the cinema adventure on different grounds from preproduction to voting at electronic film festivals. The process advanced at dizzying speed and the classical cinema model had to “adapt to different media and technologies” (Elsaesser 2008:228). According to Blossom’s definition, social media means “Any highly scalable and easily accessible communications technology or technique that enables any individual to influence groups of other individuals” (Blossom 2009:29). The most important feature that makes social media, that has been described so, different from the other medias is it having the potential of “creating marketable relations as much as marketable content” (Blossom 2009:50). When social media comes into question, quality and quantity values are as many and as variable as in parallel with global sociality pool’s limitlessness. Sometimes usersvisitors are only asked to vote on a single subject, which takes a few seconds, while sometimes they are asked to evaluate pages full of views and opinions, and/or are given the chance to create content without the inconvenience of a limit, within the range of virtual space which costs very little, or nothing. The time slots necessary for functions can be extended as wished with the ease of saving, every “social” interactive communication and shared participation can be kept open to interaction for days or years. When the terms of Web 2.0 technology are examined (the term Web 2.0 was first used by Tim O’Reily in the year 2004(Alexander 2011:29)), the fact that social media is user initiative based surfaces, because a webpage of this nature doesn’t only convey information, but it can also perform interactive communication and shared participation processes one to one with each user. In contrast to classic media’s unidirectio-

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nal nature, social media gives each user the chance to produce content and exchange the content they have produced with other content, along with a series from simple to complex, it is also systematically functional in social media types that are mainly cinema based (social cinemedia). We understand fan produced content being elementarily broadcasted, shared and popularized over different social media applications such as Facebook, MySpace pages, Twitter Tweets, blog posts, wikis and YouTube channels in social cinemedia strategies. “Archival, sharing, identity shaping, and ranking functions” (Green 2011:15) which are functions enabled generally by social media, are subject, maybe even more intensely for cinemedia. McDonnell suggests a new term, “networked individual”, with the claim that Facebook, one of the popular social media websites, has changed the world (McDonnell 2011:4). Bell seems to agree with him too when he says that a new ‘co creation’ expression has shaped on social media platforms nowadays; the Internet is becoming “newmediatized”, thus while providing a new presentation of “doing media and thinking media”, it almost destroys age-old differentiations, between “producer and consumer, amateur and professional, reality and fiction” (Bell 2009:35). With social cinemedia emerging, the technologic aspect of cinema which was in third or fourth place of importance became almost center stage. As a result, the extensity and ease of participation of social cinemedia indicates a substantial departure from the known top-down mass media model of large studios (Kushin 2009:26), and “through the use of collaborative and social media including wikis and blogs interactivity can be fostered.” (Green 2010:215). With the shift from cinema hall to social cinemedia a new entertainment concept which redefines the relation between the story and the viewer has emerged, and now wide user masses which are engaged in social cinemedia, are included in the process in accordance with the guidance of mentioned media management as an individual of the society. When cinemedia is examined from short term existence point of view, which has become popular in the virtual world, and the term cyberpop which indicates consumption subcultures, the priority of “joining in what is social” can be seen (Eve 19, Matrix 2006:19). Virtual Whisper/Buzz Media and WOM-Word of Mouth Communication Writing about ‘Viral video, YouTube and the dynamics of participatory culture’, Jean Burgess defines viral marketing as ‘the attempt to exploit the net-

work effects of word-of-mouth and internet communication in order to induce a massive number of users to pass on marketing ‘messages’ and brand information “voluntarily”’. YouTube offers examples of ‘viral video’ and internet ‘memes’ (a meme is the smallest possible element of culture, analogous to the gene in biology (Shih 109)), artistic fragments and ideas that are adopted by large communities of users (reported by Green 2010:135).Above all, Buzz media sets forth an organic structure in the cinema world, in other words it offers a special liveliness. In comparison with other media actions set forth with economical precautions and methods, there is no doubt that more realistic and natural results will spawn from a conversation among friends. With a virtual space being provided for cinema lovers to come together, they can come with their popcorn and a private cinema hall atmosphere suddenly forms. As there can’t be a better marketing resource than friends, fans and friends do buzz communication without requesting any fee. As social media tools developed, the film industry has understood that word of mouth communication enables more ticket sales than Entertainment Weekly magazine articles and promotions. These kinds of fan and cinema lover’s websites give fans the chance to express themselves, provide popular cinema information, and supply the social environment for them to express and share their personal opinion and feelings about films. If an average Hollywood studio is planning to spend 40 million dollars on a movie’s publicity with classic methods, this amount can be pulled down to 5.000 to 50.000 dollars range by functionalizing social media. These websites have the capacity of reaching millions of fans and potential viewers through a mass of people in the range of 1.000 to 100.000 who have devoted themselves to these activities (Gallager 2010, redherring.com). Online consumer’s comments and ratings in cinema social media are based on a certain film’s success rate at reaching their target rather than analyzing films as mere text. However, virtual communities that have gathered in this area should definitely be considered by marketing managers when developing strategy. While online buzzing has emerged as cause of serious success at the box office according to a series of research done in this area (Kerrigan 2010:117-118), film consumption being “a cumulative experience formed by cultural capital gained by continuing film consumption culture” makes the role that online buzz plays in increasing this cultural capital even more obvious (Kerrigan 2010:118).

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The term WOM - Word of Mouth is defined as “unofficial communication that occurs between a communicator regarded noncommercial and a user, about a certain brand, product, organization or service type”. Compared to traditional marketing communication tools WOM is accepted to be “more reliable and closer to the subject”, and “is said to be more effective in creating empathy and breaking the customer’s resistance” (reported by Li and Zhan 2011:239). People clearly prefer messages coming from the mouth, or keyboard, of people they know to messages that come from all other kinds of corporate bodies, or official natured messages from people they don’t know, and this indicates the increasing importance of buzz media functionalizing over social media and Word of Mouth communication messages. What Happens At a Typical Social Cinemedium? Social media websites that are directly related to cinema usually appear as video sharing websites or media and entertainment platforms. Sevenload, Viddler, Vimeo, YouTube, Dailymotion, Metacafe, Nico Nico Douga, Openfilm and Cisco Eos are among the main websites. 5 Mobile Apps for Finding Great Movies, 10 Mobile Apps for Movie Addicts, Using Film to Change the World, Top 10 LEGO Movie Tributes on YouTube, 10 Best Geek Movies for a Cozy Night are the first that come to mind when social media based exemplary film sources are mentioned. As for FilmMixer, it is a remarkable social network for those who are interested in cinema and cinemedia. Unlike others on this network, through a variety of subgroups 1000 permanent members conduct a significant research and communication process about cinema and almost every area of cinemedia. For an average user that accesses these sites, there are activities waiting that take a fair bit of time. Visitors can basically do searches about a movie they want, join existing fan clubs’ activities, exchange comments and views, form new fan clubs, or arrange cinema activities of an unlimited variety. Organizing film parties, organizing cinema viewings and trips, purchasing cinema tickets and writing comments on films they like or dislike, joining continuing discussions and expressing their ideas are some of the activities that can be done. Through these websites fans can follow the lives of the crew members that act a part in a movie closely, and sometimes even communicate with them. Thus movie fans can be engaged in movie and ci-

nema activities on an intensive level, and enter a close mutual interaction process with members of the cinema world. Along with the internet world reaching a more mobile status with new technological advances, through iPhone and similar applications movie fans have the chance to rate and credit a movie as soon as they watch it in a cinema hall. Following that, with Facebook and Twitter applications they can carry their ratings to a wider social area within seconds. Mobile access opportunity is very important, because due to it, fans can communicate with each other in real time. On the other hand, websites give fans VOD viewing and saving technologies and the opportunity to save movies over current websites in DVD or other formats for a fee, thus make the process of reaching a movie as fast and practical as possible. Just like YouTube which is a typical cinemedia “between community and commerce”, it is both industry and user driven (Snickars and Vonderau 11). In a continuing social relation, YouTube videos function in establishing a connection between young or old individuals or groups on a social network (Lange 2009:83) The term YouTubing can mean a number of things: one can simply watch one (specific) or a whole series of clips; one can rate, flag or comment on videos; or one can upload, categorize, annotate and tag one’s own moving images (either self-produced or found and appropriated) (Kessler and Schäfer 2009:280). Industrial Interaction: A “Win-Win” Practice Social exchange, “live” transmission and private consumption in the home enabled by social cinemedia (Young 2006:xxiii) is very important for Hollywood industry’s predictability of profit estimation and change (Young 2006:xxv) so it has caused attention to be drawn to the power of the interactive relation between social networks and films. From independent projects carried out with modest personal means, to worldwide famous blockbuster films, in almost every film’s dreaming, designing, project, production, distribution and exhibition stages, the cinema industry has come close to social media in a very short time. While classic Hollywood has a promotion and advertisement methodology based on only stars and fan magazines that are printed in a limited number, modern Hollywood now has Facebook, Twitter, and mobile phones. Modern Hollywood heartily functionalized all tools of social media, with these tools Hollywood found the opportunity to organize a variety of viral campaigns very easily and almost momentarily; thus, it has secured the awareness it needs for each and every unit product it pro-

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duces with innovative applications and much more economical budgets compared to the past. It is now possible to claim that production and consumption are overlapping in the relation between social media and cinema. The cinema lover who makes a film band circulate over social media literally participates in film production and exhibition (Klinger 2006a: 193).In film trailers reaching large masses easily and very quickly over technological devices through social media websites along with relevant corporations’ planning and preparing the technological infrastructure, cinema fans’ wish to reach each other in the name of friendship and socializing, voluntarily and in a viral manner plays an important part (Kerrigan 2010:200-201). As it is well known nowadays in the cinema sector, there are two ways of drawing people to cinema halls: either by creating a significant sensation about the movie -as has been done since cinema has existed-, or by keeping up with the times and designing an original social media campaign... Besides, because sensational attractions don’t attract people as much as they used to their effect doesn’t last long, and sensation activities carry other risks with them. Even though how the future of the film will shape after the campaign is more relevant with the content of the film, it isn’t a dream to sell out tickets in a short time with a social media campaign that has been perfectly designed and enriched with good timing... Considering that almost two thirds of the world population visits at least one social network website a week reveals why big studios and production companies reserve a significant amount of their promotion and marketing budget for -mostly online conducted- successful social media campaigns. Even though it isn’t possible to say that an individual joining in these online societies have turned/will turn into a cinema lover; discussions, ratings and comments, idea-opinion exchanges conducted here can seriously affect the real ticket sales in the opening week. The real reason for film studios preferring to sell and distribute their products over social networks is the global scale provided by social networks (about 750 million users and increasing daily) and the entertainment sector genetically being a social and sharing experience. For instance, on whatever platform, Facebook, which is a social medium, is accessible from more than one third of smart phones and internet enabled TV’s. Film studios are planning to sell and rent their products over YouTube; even though presently it only provides a limited ca-

talog, YouTube is making an effort to reach the level of Facebook and iTunes, where 30% of the sales are done. When people start to exchange content over Facebook, it will be possible for Facebook to turn into a significant platform of trade instead of advertisement and promotion. According to data of sources like ComScore, Turner, Fox and Hulu, while everyone else is pretty much standing still, Facebook is already the sixth-largest video site on the web and is growing daily. Considering one eighth of time spent on internet in America is in Facebook, the scale of the mentioned potential becomes clearer (Learmonth 2011:14). Social websites and film companies are seeking for new collaborations, and giving examples of various applications at a rate increasing day by day. For instance, the collaboration between the two leading online and mobile cinema brands, Flixster and Rotten Tomatoes, and integrated media company NCM Media Networks is very extraordinary and has an innovative nature. While NCM Cinema Network, the owner of a digital cinema network of a nature that isn’t available in our country yet (digital in-theater network is a structure that enables exhibition at the same time as cinema halls) operates in collaboration with the cinema halls of giant cinema owning companies such as AMC Entertainment, Cinemark Holdings Inc., Regal Entertainment Group, and other cinema halls around the country, it also benefits from the power offered by social media websites such as Flixster and Rotten Tomatoes. With the power of social media, NCM Cinema Network finds the opportunity to reach cinema lovers online, conduct certain campaigns and provide services before the film is released, during exhibition, and after it. Thus, by means of in-theater online and mobile platforms, cinema lovers who do and those who don’t have the opportunity to go to a cinema hall can come together on common platforms. Pre-Production Interaction In pre-production period, trailer release and poster promotions shine out as processes social media plays the main role in. Previously, the only trailer exhibition place was cinema halls, then TV’s would take stage and thus expectation and curiosity would be aroused in cinema lovers for films that were to come. Even though trailers have been viewed on the internet for a long time now, social cinemedia websites convey information to cinema fans about films to come in a much warmer and social method. Upon an explosion of interest in this kind of

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social cinemedia websites, every day more studios are collaborating with Facebook and Twitter about exhibition of their trailers (Warren 2010, www. mashable.com). The answer to the question ‘what other roles could social media play in pre-production processes’ could be very interesting: For instance, by means of social media tools, Onir, an active film producer in India, taking one step further, collected funds over social media platforms to cover the costs of his latest film “I AM”, indicates that social media can also play an active role in pre-production film financing (Ashish 2011, www.outofbox.com). In other words, you can put forward a film scenario, share it with users in social cinemedia, and request their support of all kinds to turn it into a film. On the other hand, considering the fact that every film cannot be released in every cinema hall, by functionalizing modern social media tools a study can be conducted about a certain film being released or not in a certain area cinema hall with maximum accuracy. The meeting of people and the film to be released can be predicted and planned; this can prevent disappointment for both viewers and producer-cinema hall operators. On-Production Interaction Even though social cinemedia provides various conveniences to almost all actors of the sector in the process of film production, first of all it provides significant support to independent film producers that are deprived of certain economical opportunities, or can’t set a budget for certain promotion processes. Thanks to social cinemedia independent film producers and artists can reach their audience or fans at a cost next to nothing. Social cinemedia websites being closely in touch with film clubs, film festivals, academic film organizations, and the cinema sector’s other related sectors provides significant opportunities to independent producers along with all actors of the sector. Along with collaboration models planned to be also conducted with technology giants like Intel, Sony and Panasonic, enabling ticket sales from certain websites reinforces their role in the economical process. In commercial planning intended to be conducted with cinema halls and e-trade companies, social media’s role and importance in the cinema process is increasing incrementally. Websites of a social nature that conduct significant work and research for cinema lovers that have difficulty finding small, independent and foreign sourced films, have covered a fair distance.

Post-Production Interactions Although film marketing over social media isn’t considered very interesting by academic circles yet (Colliande and Dahlen 313), film making and postproduction relations’ backbones are shaped by trade methods of promotion, exhibition and postproduction which are surrounded by economical relations. Social media has grown to enable particularly Hollywood and generally most of the world cinema sectors the most powerful promotion and commercial opportunity invented so far. The main point has been the change in strategy that was shaped on creating a community of interest with previous advertisement tools. This revolutionary innovation’s main dynamic is “community of interest” in scope of social media tools, being ready for all kinds of information input. This mass engaged in information that is going to be presented, is like a voluntary army of ambassadors waiting for a promotion and advertisement campaign. First of all, this situation means reaching numbers in ticket sales, VOD and DVD marketing far above those reached in any campaign conducted with classical methods. Film rental sector is taking advantage of the head spinning effect of social media, and many boring procedures and extra costs and time loss in the process of film renting is becoming a thing of the past thanks to the recording opportunities enabled by social cinemedia tools. Gurevitch’s views about the subject are remarkable (Gurevitch 2010:84): “Digital technology opens up new horizons in films’ promotional potential through the distribution channels opened up by the internet. Internet based distribution channels with their viral capacities and database and algorithmic structures lend themselves to an exponential rerun of the conditions of media publicity and mass consumption that surrounded early cinematic spectacles.” On the other hand, due to social media’s capacity of turning almost every cinema lover into a critic by its nature, consumer comments can reach practically everywhere within a few hours from the release of a film, and can significantly effect a film’s success. It is clear that this new season of criticizing and commenting trivializes demographic data differences which is important in all other promotion campaigns, and provides a much more widespread homogeny. In social media, more than mass and social qualities, the element that is made prominent is individuals, and this strengthens the argument that social media provides the highest level of

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equality and democracy reached so far. Transmedia storytelling is a good model for the subject of distributed storytelling around social cinemedia. “Matrix Trilogy” is a good example of it. The film’s story content is distributed across multiple sites and media: the movie trilogy, an anthology of animated short films, comics, computer games, a massively multiplayer online game, Web content, and additional DVD content (Alexander 2011:131). In addition to all these applications, forms created originally by fans can be added to the process. Sample Cases Among sample cases, a campaign of producing continuous awareness among fans and followers, which are the targeted mass, is significant because it reveals all features of the process. By conversations and dialogues about a certain film being created by a small group that will conduct activities in a cinema context that actively uses social media, creating special awareness for the film had been chosen as the initial objective. The community that was defined as target customer mass was composed of Facebook using fan list, Twitter followers and classical fans of the film. As concepts to be functionalized, different kinds of cinema clubs, links leading to film trailers and eye-catching film announcements were arranged as very special activities for guests. The cinema’s general manager who would sustain an interactive relation with the relevant virtual community in the discussions, partners’ very special collaboration and activity announcements had been determined as the cooperation process necessary for the campaign. Facebook applications and pictures, creating discussion areas through podcasts, sending regular email and messages to blogs, and using the YouTube channel had been planned as content. While Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and blog on-line connections were encouraged, appearing in all kinds of third party websites (websites like Yelp and The Guardian’s Blog), the website that was already active and the relevant email list were foreseen for connections, in the conversation process, constant communication with fans was continuing while Facebook updates, regular interactions with Twitter environment, and blog posts at least once every two weeks were to be functionalized. The results were clear: the awareness campaign increased sharing-participation and word of mouth communication; users loved the website they were expected to connect to because of the special offers that caused it to spread in waves; the relevant manager adding the website used in the campaign to his own cinema blog increased

awareness. And the number of Twitter followers increased from 1200 to more than 4000, and the Facebook fan list from 700 to 3900. Naturally the number of film viewers increased significantly (Abromaityte 2011 www.socialmedia.ie). The most significant sample case of a film succeeding through mediation of social media is the process experienced in the production and exhibition of the film “Paranormal Activity”. This process also initiated a new direct marketing strategy to be formed with its subjectivity, opening the corridor to everyone, democratizing the process and giving cinema lovers voice to show the way to studios instead of a wide spectrum expensive product presentation. Eventful, indisputably owes its success in making “Paranormal Activity” Paramount Film Corporation’s best profit making film ever, to the web buzz it conducted over Twitter. To date, the “Paranormal” campaign has been the most successful in Eventful’s history according to CEO Jordan Glazier, and has already prompted other studios like Sony, The Weinstein Co. and Roadside Attractions to conduct similar alternatives. The company teamed with Eventful (user-generated marketing site) for this operation and started a “Demand It” campaign. In this campaign, cinema fans were expected to demand the film they wanted to be released in their hometown. Paramount made a promise of nationwide release for a certain film in the case that it received 1 million demands on its website. Reaching this lofty goal took the studio less than a week. In common with Eventful website, Paramount intensely used Facebook in the film publicity campaign: the main point of this campaign was requesting users seen as possible fans, to offer to shoot a part of the film in their local area. It is guessed that the point that appealed to people in this strategy was the fans’ “feeling of ownership” about the film, because most people get excited about a film made in their own country or neighborhood, and it forms an original bond between them and the film. Surely, this bond forms awareness about the film in the viewers at a higher level than that formed by all other media tools (Warren 2010, www.mashable.com). One of the best sample cases that can be shown as justification of this assessment must be the experiences during the release process of “Paranormal Activity”, released by Paramount Corporation in the year 2007. The film with production costs merely around 15.000 dollars, returned more than 150 mil-

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lion dollars at the box office. As a result, “Paranormal Activity” was released at the end of this campaign and brought revenue of 107.9 million dollars. Glazier says the secret lies in the feeling of “being a part of the process” forming in viewers. Paramount reached an extra economical income in this process by spending less than 20 million dollars for marketing compared to 60-80 million dollars spent on an average classic media campaign. According to Hampp, the key activities of the success of this campaign were clear: a) speaking to the interested b) personalizing the marketing process c) not creating false hype (Hampp 2010:48). Another attention grabbing sample case of how social cinenetworks are useful in advertising and marketing is James Gunn’s experience. James Gunn, the successful writer of Scooby Doo films’, expressed that online social cinemedia supported his films’ success greatly, mentions that he has 24.000 Twitter followers, and 30.000 Mypace and 10-15.000 Facebook followers (Pepperell and Punt 2006:105,118). A similar situation can be seen when the experience process LoveCinema website follows is examined: basically, LoveCinema cinewebsite sells film promotions over key members who expand its base. The company collaborated with CinemNX in conducting a trial promotional activity in relation to “Me and Orson Welles”, a Richard Linklater film. It was a campaign focusing on the release of the film and was going to last three weeks. In scope of the campaign, the website’s club and other activities were engaged in the process via attractive promotions, and among the offered promotions were signed posters of the films’ star, Zach Efron. The trial promotion process that started with 150 fans reached the scope of 15.000-20.000 in a short time with buzzing. In another sample case experienced in India, while the producer of “Y-films”, Ashish tells about the process, he emphasizes that digital marketing over social media appeals to the eye and visuality better, and that it is conducted at a much lower cost. In the release process of “Luv Ka The End”, Y-films conducted the first YouTube video chat campaign in India and brought together about 9000 users with the actors and actresses of the film online. Ashish’s words on the relation between social media and cinema refer to the main dynamics of the interaction (Ashish 2011, www.outofbox.com): “83% of the viewers that go to cinema halls are between the ages of 15 and 35, and this mass spends

more time on online media in compared to all other communication tools. That is to say, bearing this in mind social media and digital marketing is the first alternative that comes to mind. For this reason we released many pre-screens and publicity contents through online media first.” Michelle Greer, a web design strategist, mentions about the example of functionalizing Twitter as a cinemedia application. According to her statements, a small number of followers and fan mass that have certain characteristics can create a greater effect than a big mass of followers that you don’t know much about. “Elite but small masses rise to the position of an authority and information center due to their strength in information and qualifications”, and can enable reaching the desired goal (Zandt 2010:60, 62). Qualitative interaction: Public Cinema - A New Definition of Cinema? ‘The mental machinery’ of cinema, as Neale, the author of the book “Cinema and Technology” puts it (1985, p. 1), is ‘an apparatus for the production of meanings and pleasures, and as such involves aesthetic strategies and psychological processes’. For this reason, apart from the production and distribution processes of cinema that is shaped by digital technology, storytelling qualities should be regarded in almost every research. Computer based media work which is of a digital nature adds critical new dimensions of interactivity concept, interface and historical context, and commentary on contemporary techno-mediated culture. Due to internet which smashed barriers of distribution and sharing that were in effect in previous eras, artists in the fields like interactive cinema, interactive multimedia and hypermedia, have the opportunity to display their works of art more widely (Wilson 2002:665). Such that, Elsaesser claims that digital technology can abolish the space between “the visible and invisible world”, and puts forward an idea that cinema should be reinvented on this new base. He propounds that cinema should be evaluated as “archaeology, theoretical object, practice, epistemology, ontology, but above all as a philosophical perpetuum mobile” (Elsaesser 2008:239). In the same manner, nowadays’ social life is defined as “post-diasporic, post-internet, postmodern neoliberal globalization”, and mainstream cinema that has emerged in this era is named “multiplex cinema”. The fact that populations that move around on a global scale for different reasons, are just as important as cinema viewers and cinema

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producers in the emerge of multiplex cinema, is indicated (Hamid 2009:3). In this context, when the effects of social cinemedia on cinematic creation and story telling are looked at, it is seen that these processes also went through different interactions and changes. For instance, especially for cinema “Facebook enables cinema lovers to form a film culture, discuss commentary approaches and send film clips to each other in a dazzling efficiency” (Hamid and others 2010) and has a positive effect on them being informed on cinema language, rhetoric and the art of storytelling. Such that, a producer that has been actively and professionally shooting films for many years, states that he watched a short film on YouTube of a child filming his friend doing something stupid, found it sincere and crazy, was thrilled by it and that he had learnt something from it. (Wagner 2011, sensesofcinema.com)Even though theorists such as Jenkins, Caldwell, Everett, Miller and Boddy have argued that industrial, technological and economic events have shadowed cinema’s qualitative values, story telling and rhetoric (reported by Gurevitch 2010:85), this approach doesn’t change the fact that due to wikis and blogs that are social media tools, ordinary individuals have turned into writers and commentators, and with cinema blogs film culture has been democratized in maybe the widest sense in the history of civilization. On the other hand, while cinema blogs, which are connected to frequently, and enable critical engagement, with their frequently updated nature provide participators the dream of a global collectivity, as they publicize studio produced films, they are also functionalized in publicity and supporting of documentaries, independent and DIY (do it yourself) films. This creates a clear opportunity for production of independent films (Tryon 2009:145,147). In Shih’s words “In the PC Era, anyone could become a producer or a publisher” (Shih 26), and thanks to social cinemedia the relation between film producers and cinema lovers receive an important ground that can be canalized to film culture. With the video sharing phenomenon that spread over YouTube and similar websites, like film blogs, YouTube too acts with the tag line “broadcast yourself” in the name of targeting maximum participation. Thus, social cinemedia has opened the door wide to pull the viewers, who have been placed in a passive position all along, into the production mechanism (Tryon 2009:153). Reviewing films over Facebook, and the chance of these reviews being published on relevant professional web-

sites, is another fact enabled by social cinemedia in the name of cinematic new creation (Awl 2011:99). As a parallel development, with low costs, new technologies and creative applications becoming widespread by means of social media, extensity and liberation in film production economy can be mentioned of. According to Jesse Walker, as the cost of film making falls and more people, in more places, from more social backgrounds, learn to shoot and edit, there will be an increase in creativity, variety, and verve (Alexander 2011:122). According to what Harris reported from Angerer “the framelessness of digital images” and the interchangeability of previously distinct media tools indicate the emergence of a “post-medium condition” (Harris 2008:185), and new media technologies have expanded the range of delivery channels, and enabled fans to archive, annotate, appropriate, and recirculate media content in powerful new ways. Likewise, a growth of film writing on the web can be seen. In these kind of websites where film writing occurs, as social media types, websites with active chat groups and blogs stand out, the processes of film writing through these websites are considered far more important than the decline in the theatrical distribution of art films and independent films (Rosenbaum 2010:277). Even though Klinger claims that social media websites “present cinema through a matrix of discourses and standards of taste informed by the film industry” (Klinger 2006a:193), with their platforms of exchanging views which provide fairly democratic grounds compared to other media organs they contain, have almost turned every cinema lover into a film commentator. According to Manovich who interprets this view “the logic of the film-making process is being redefined, new principles of digital film making are amounting to a new language of cinema” (reported by Bennett and others 2008:1). Change is impressive, Jan Harris and Angerer together say that the notion of the spectator as immobilized by the filmic text that was dominant in film theories of the 70’s, has been superseded by the Notion of the mobile, active spectator. Thus, this position of the spectator oriented radical differentiation takes place alongside the collapse of distinctions between producer and consumer of images that is accelerated with opportunities provided by digital video (DV) technology. With the spectators’ new active position as embodied over new technologies and social media, a haptic, immersive or participatory experience has replaced the previous experience of cinema which was constant and passive (Harris 2008:185).

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Thus, as digital technologies convert cinema’s rhetoric art and culture, basically social cinemedia is exposing a characteristic that clears the way for the amateur cinema expression. Even though interactive media seems to pose a particular threat to the codes and the forms of standard cinematic pleasure presented by classical film due to its content’s subjectivity (Young 2006:206), while producing fan culture for interactive media and cinema, and a network of related texts including fan videos and fiction, interactive media enabled by social networks allow for enhanced modular encounters with narrative content (Cameron 2008:171). Additionally, while amateur users who can express themselves and their product through social cinemedia are backed by these medias’ dynamics, they also promote a more spontaneous and unpredictable paradigm for media consumption than the classical cinema can afford to reinstate (Young 2006:47). According to Murray this new situation has “become an important landmark in cinema theory and development” (Murray 2008:87). Even videos recorded via mobile devices precisely in order to be shared online as a marker of one’s cultural taste and one’s consumer status occupy a place in this new cinema rhetoric (Hills 2009:119). With the advent of social media and the Web’s second decade, nowadays a second generation that functionalizes combining creative storytelling with new technologies is mentioned (Alexander 2011:28). Sometimes films are produced by someone sharing a short film started by a cinema lover friend on YouTube, and the film is finished with new ideas and participation (for example Marble Hornets) (Alexander 2011:87). A similar example of freedom and originality is individuals or corporations that are geographically and economically far away from each other, but come together over transport and communication means provided by social cinemedia for a specific film project, after which they can dissolve (Phelan 2011:42). Fan websites and fan fiction communities, accepted as dynamic landmarks of social cinemedia are making significant contributions to the rhetoric, language and art of the new cinema. Members of these communities do more than get together online to talk about their feelings and thoughts. Fans produce and consume materials which reinforce aspects of their fan identities, allowing them to enjoy richer, prosumer fan experiences (Green 2010:147). Even though it is mentioned that the exchange in the fan community is made up of three elements: to give, to receive, and to reciprocate (Hellekson 2009:114), it is obvious that fan fiction enriches cinema products and turns them into new forms

over new communication technologies (Alexander 2011:134). On the other hand, when fan/star relation is examined from the perspective of fan sites, it is impossible not to notice some psychological advantages that naturally form. These advantages can be shortly listed as: The obtained social advantage is for both sides, the fan and the star. Fan subcultures create an opportunity for developing certain skills and turning them into valuable careers in the future. By means of people they meet, and their connections through these websites, fans obtain the opportunity and environment of travelling the world which they couldn’t otherwise. Fans can participate in and organize various community services and fundraiser activities through the collaboration environment of these websites. Being aware of dialogues that are continuing between stars and their employers stimulates the feeling of making a contribution to that star’s continuing career. The strong and positive connection that it will create between fans and the star in the name of popularization and embracement of the star is significant. Admiration enables psychological escape in the form of people getting away from their routinized and boring life to a certain degree, and relaxing. Every fan can try their own linguistic/local infrastructure, race and political experiences, faith relations, cultural memory on a common film or cinema work and open a door to a variety of unforeseen boundaries. Instead of an Epilogue Cinema and cinema products being digitalized and positioning themselves right in the middle of social media usage area verifies what Edison said about cinema years ago: “cinema, is a phenomenon that can provide potentially endless stream of ways in which a space of consumption and circulation could be dynamized and activated” (Crary 2001:31). As foreseen in this guess, the change in cinema production paradigm is the change of a long established definition. From a mass communication

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tool with which a minority entertains the majority through a constant and hierarchical system, there is a movement towards a new definition. In this new definition, while cinema displays a participatory, nonhierarchical, mobile, and variable structure, opposite to it being rare in the past there is plenitude. As cinema exceeds the four walls of cinema halls by means of social media which developed with digital technologies, it attains a more central position in the everyday life of people (Klinger 2006b:374). This weighted position cinema has attained in people’s everyday life by the means of cinemedia, might be the most important factor in understanding its definition as a media tool and its future. On the other hand, it has become clearer that the doubts about the cinema sector that takes place in social media will threat the known cinema branches and sub units in an ontological meaning is groundless. It is obvious that social cinemedia is far from harming the position of medias that have existed all along, in a way it provides it service, and carries the sector to a further point with its extra new expansions, and complex and wide media area (Harrison 2011:8). In addition to known online activities, in order to strengthen their bond with cinema lovers, film studios are researching some new methods to enable cinema lovers to take an active place in the film production process. In these works, while cinema lovers’ preferences are noticed and considered in shaping the film, the film’s appreciation will increase and the possibility of being unsuccessful will be reduced to minimum (Kerrigan 2010:200-201). As expressed at the beginning of “The Dragonfly Effect”, the condition of being successful in social media is combining “participation, networking, growth, and ripple effects-forces to form a movement that people feel they are a part of” (Aaker and Smith 2010). First of all, people use social media for the “need to belong”. Because the desire for interpersonal attachments is a fundamental human motivation and is central to the human condition (Phillips 2008:79), social cinemedia attributing importance to “belonging and feeling as a part of the process”, is a condition of the mentioned media continuing to contribute to and serve the cinema sector. Along with cybermobility, online activities also expanded social networks and caused an explosion in social relations, and enabled mass participation through giving masses the opportunity of accessing social networks without requiring physical movement. Despite the opportunity of them being widely viewed over YouTube and similar cinewebsites, some think that the digital file is “a mere shadow of cine-

matic movement” (Lundemo 2009:317), the view of scientists that believe the future promise of digital aesthetics is its “enhanced zone of interactivity that will shape in the area of social media” is dominant (Murray 2008:195). Because the users that connect to cinematic presentation networks that are available on these platforms are able to share, put together and produce their own reality, fantasies and memories within a certain concept of art. When the blockbuster films of the last few years are looked at, the footsteps of collaboration between the cinema sector and social media can be clearly seen. Even though the commercial aspect and advertising in social media carries the risk of “the perception of excessive commercialization leading to user abandonment” (Taylor and others 2011:258), it isn’t a dream to expect a day by day increase in the budget of promotion and advertisement the cinema industry conducts over social media. Also, it would be suitable to guess that in a few years the vast majority of the global film market will take place online. Most likely, cinema lovers will prefer to be engaged on promotion campaigns conducted over social media, compared to all other campaign mechanisms. Since by means of social media tools that provide the opportunities of mass communication, informatics and communication in an endless manner, every cinema product that provides good content can easily reach any corner of the globe, the time for reconsidering known marketing strategies is overdue. While the key condition of existing in the cinema sector might become successfully functionalizing social media tactics, it will open the path to unexpected box office success and in the end more people will be able to meet the beauties of the art of cinema. When all the processes mentioned above are considered, it can be said that the structure of the new emerging cinema circle that appeared with new media leaded by social cinemedia, is of a nature that is less material-concrete, more flexible and widespread, and less measurable. As a result, this original situation makes cinema’s production-distribution-release circumstances, language and rhetoric, and the boundaries of relation networks that are formed by further social values and criteria more vague. As long as technological and cultural changes, especially in social media, persist in this manner, it doesn’t seem possible to write an epilogue about cinema.

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Digital Media As A New Communication Tool And A New Kind Of Book Assist. Prof. Nazan ALİOĞLU Beykent University, Communication Faculty, Department of Television Reporting and Programming [email protected]

Abstrack

The increasing importance of mass media, which is caused by the developments in information technology, and easy access to these technological tools have eliminated the borders while people are communicating with each other and recent developments have revealed new models. Now, communication has changed its direction towards computer based manufacturing, distribution and storage. While printing had a revolutionary impact in 14th century and photography in 19th century, today we have been experiencing new media revolution. In this sense, books store information, but digital media as new media, in addition to its other functions like production and distribution of the information, stores information too. In summary, today’s digital media has the potential to emerge as a new kind of book. In this context, this study questions digital media as a new form of communication and books as old media. Key Words: Digital Media, Dialectics, New Media, Old Media, Book. INTRODUCTION such intensive interest stems from the new media’s potential of affecting the future and from its wide It is argued that the internet technology has led to use. It is even compared with the ancient Greek and a transformation in the mass communication media representative democracy and internet is stated to and the new media has come into being at present. have opened a new age, namely the electronic deThe new media concept which started to gain im- mocracy age. The new media is deemed to be the portance as from the mid 1990s has been in fact in guarantee for such concepts as equality, freedom use since the 1960s. The “new” concept in the new and democratization by some academicians (Kürşat media which is intensively based on computerization and Özad, 2005:331). implies a cultural and social change which makes itself felt in so strong a manner in our times. In this context, the new media or digital media may be defined as a new mode of communication or a Invention and proliferation of the printing machine in Europe in 1450 led to the development of the new kind of book. Books, as the old media, stored writing culture. The proliferation of this printing the information; on the other hand, the digital metool established the basis of the new reading and dia, as the new media, stores the information besiwriting forms and process. The reason why the me- des its other functions such as the generation and dia is considered “new” in the 21st century, i.e. a dissemination of the information. In this context, long time after the invention of the printing machine is that the media is still the most significant tool this study shall question the relationship of the difor the communication of ideas, feelings and events gital media as a new form of communication and a kind of book and the book as the old media on the (Dewdney and Ride, 2006:5). basis of acculturation. Internet is a means of communication which occupies a significant place in our lives in the late 20th century. Internet’s occupation such an important place in our lives has also brought about a rich increase of literature in the field of theories and research related to this new medium. The reason for

DIGITAL MEDIA AND BOOK Electronics has penetrated into the fields of arts and humanities, and in this context, a crossbred discourse which offers different models has emer-

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ged. Then, what is digital? Digital is a technical term used to define the media and systems based on electronic computation. The most prominent characteristic of the digital systems is that they do not use continually changing representative relationships. Instead, they transform all the information or inputs into dual groups as 0s and 1s at the level of storable, transmissible, transferable or processable numbers (Lunenfeld, 2001:xv). “Digital”, as a method, bears resemblance to dialectics. The term “dialectics” has been surrounded by conflicting meanings for many centuries. Dialectics is a philosophical method for some people, and just a method of discussion for some and an analytical instrument for some others. Dialectics also means the eloquence in Greek. At this point, we may set Socratic dialogs as an example. Thinking or acting through thesis and antithesis in order to reach the synthesis may be expressed as the formula of dialectics. One comes across such a picture when one looks into dialectics from the viewpoint of the history of philosophy: According to Zeno of Elea, the ideal object of dialectics is “paradox” (contradiction); Hegel devoted himself to dialectics’ relation with the spirit; and Marx concentrated on “material” in the matter. In its form as used at present, dialectics is usually predicated on Hegel and Marx (Lunenfeld, 2001:xvi-xvii). Unlike Hegel, Marx was interested in material rather than in the spiritual. Therefore, his philosophy is known as “dialectic materialism”. Absolutely influenced by Hegel, the material changed places with the spirit in Marx; that is to say, the material replaced the spirit. According to Marx, history does not go towards the god, but it proceeds towards the proletarian utopy. At this point, it is required to emphasize that the whole dialectic thinking does not share such teleological tendencies (Lunenfeld, 2001:xviii). The dual method of cybernetic computation which may show the probable conditions or circumstances which reveal the difference between the universal and the spiritual –0 or 1 or open or closed– displays a condition which bears resemblance to the dualities as described above. As a matter of fact, this duality is thesis and antithesis, i.e. it is dialectics (Lunenfeld, 2001:xviii). Connection of a computer to a network is a unique situation in the history of media technology. In this sense, digital is the initial widespread system which

allows the user to distribute, create, receive and consume the visual-audio content from the same box. In this context, “industrial society transforms into the “network society” by the term which Manuel Castells used in the title of his last book” (Artun, 2011:122). “Deleuze thinks that a machine type corresponds to each type of society. The present type of society is a type of society in which shift had been made from energy machines to cybernetic machines and to computers” (Artun, 2011:124). Besides all these characteristics, digital media further has some potential to emerge as a new kind of book. Books are more than being the storage of the text; they mean much more. A book is the symbol of knowledge. Therefore, it is praised by what it means to its user; it is either not paid attention or is burnt. Books have an allusive relationship with men and their thoughts. It is therefore a terrorist action to burn books. As an extension of the human memory, the use of a book is personal. The paperback edition of a book is distributed at reasonable prices all over the world. This is an important change which took place in the 19th century. Such a situation had not existed earlier (Brody, 2001:134–135). For literacy had not been a ubiquitous widespread action by the 19th century. There is a promise between the covers of the book; it enlightens its owner and expands his horizon. A book is a personal thing and the extension of an individual’s memory as well. Books are such objects which are closest to an individual. They are carried, read, re-read and watched. In the present day, the contemporary collateral of the book as an extension of an individual is a computer. It may now be claimed that the digital media will turn into the new book. It is clear that the domain of digital media is the new location of the information society. In the present day, one never considers a life without interactive networks, and the “link” concept has an essential place in the lives of the people. In order to be able to develop a new book, one must analyze what is expected of the text, memory and information technologies. The existing “text” and “textuality” concepts are closely related with the physical existence of the book. While in the beginning a bound book provided the reader with the felling that the memory was safe and secure between the covers of the book, the books have been recently transferred to electronic patterns (Brody, 2001:146). By this means, the computer has chan-

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ged the “book” concept which contains the memory and the text. In those societies where written records were not kept, the text was only stored in the memory; it was verbally communicated in the every day life and from generation to generation. Jeanneney explains this issue with the following example: “Before the invention of writing, there was only one channel by which knowledge might be communicated: words supported by the human memory. The event which symbolizes this period is the story of the marathon runner. The messenger runs 42,195 meters to Athens after the victory which the Greeks won over the Persians in 490 BC; he dies of fatigue there once he has told of the victory of his country by leaps and bounds. He looks integrated with the news he carries and kind of symbolically vanishes once he has thrown it out…” (2009:21). Upon the invention of writing, text passed to manuscripts; back then, writing was an art in itself apart from its content. Manuscripts were valuable objects which were rarely available and which an elite class could possess. The developing writing technology started the text’s process of turning into a commodity. The texts which were needed were hidden in large libraries. The book had now been able to accommodate the shareable, merchantable and purchasable knowledge. This is an evidence of the fact that, unlike in the past, knowledge is a commodity or merchandise which is independent of human beings. Computer eliminates all these traditional methods related to writing and text as described above. It places the text in an electronic pattern. The linear (analog) text which we all know is a well-balanced text. But the electronic text means having opportunities to enter, revise and exit the non-linear hypertext (Brody, 2001:146). As it has been stated by Joseph Weizenbaum of MIT, who is one of the first pioneers of computer, “my father used the expression ‘as written in the holy books’, but we use the expression ‘as the computer tells us’ in the present day” (reported by Brody, 2001:148). Italo Calvino describes the up-to-now communication or types of relationships between the books and the reader as follows: “The books you need not read, the books written for any purposes other than reading, the books I have read without opening their covers as they are

included in the class of books which have been read before written, the books which you would surely read if you had other lives to live but unfortunately you could not because the remaining days of your life are numbered, the books which you have intended to read but which you would want to read if there were other books which you have to read, the books which you will wait to reduce by half their price as they are too expensive now, the books which you will wait for the pocket versions to be printed, the books which you will try to borrow from another one, the books which everybody has read and therefore you may also be considered to have read, the books which you have been long thinking to read, the books which you have been seeking but have not been able to find for many years, the books related to the subject on which you are now studying, the books which you want ot keep on hand just in case, the books which you may perhaps put aside in order to read this summer, the books which you need to accompany the other books in your bookshelf, the books which arise an unexpected and crazy feeling in you and which you cannot furthermore find a justifiable reason for this feeling, the books which you read so long ago but which you may want to read again now, the books which you have always pretended to have read but which it is really time to read them, the pleasure which a recently printed book gives” (2012:21-22). In the meanwhile, what about the pleasures given by the book, which are nowadays called oldfashioned? Will they be forgotten? “The pleasures which the paperknife will make one enjoy are tactual, audio, visual and especially mental. There is an action taken in order to overcome the tangible integrity of the book to reach the intangible integrity thereof prior to reading. The knife which enters between the pages on the lower corner effusively rises. It makes a vertical cut when it rises, cutting the interlocked fibers…” (Calvino, 2012:54). What about a real reader’s book reading ritual? “Stretch your legs, put your feet on one cushion, two cushions, armrests of the sofa, arms of the armchair, coffee table, writing table, piano, … Adjust the light not to tire your vision. Do it right now, because you will not want to move when you are absorbed in reading… Try to hinder everything which may possibly interrupt the action of reading. If you are addicted, may your cigarette be on hand, and your ashtray as well.” (Calvino, 2012:54).

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Will our existing relations with the books in bookstores or libraries keep being just as Italo Calvino describes in his novel entitled “At a Winter Night, If a Passerby” (2012)? If so, what shall be the condition of the traditional relations of a reader with the books as old media? Why are books still published in an age of culture in which the written or printed pages are supposed to have been overcome? These are quite important and perhaps unanswerable questions. However, it may always stated that the book as old media which is of eternal importance for humanity shall keep being printed till eternity. ACCULTURATION AND INTERNET Since the invention of telegram, i.e. the 1930s, the word “technique” has been a significant indication for public communication systems (Inglis, 1996:19). “Media” which is a plural word in Latin has a singular meaning in every day life and also means any kinds of means of communication and bears a message. These are media each: telephone, radio, film, television as well as printed text or printwork, human voice, painting or sculpture (Inglis, 1996:21). And in the present day, the new media, i.e. internet via computer technologies incorporates all these means of communication. Each medium has a different mode of operation. Telephone is an actual medium. It is capable of carrying the human voice from many kilometers afar; it ensures mutual talk. Printwork (printed words) is also an actual medium. Even though the author of the book is not talked with or the printed text is not capable of carrying the voice or gestures –and these elements ensure the richness, emphasis and clarity of the world of speech, and the black letters on a white sheet of paper link the action of reading to the visual perception. Books take people to other worlds, make them laugh, make them cry or people lose themselves in books (Inglis, 1996:22). Mass media further fulfill the function of being an effective source of information as a means of learning. “It may be said that, among the mass media, internet has recently stood out much more due to both its accessibility and popularity and its capability of offering a great number of mass media (television, newspaper, radio) all together” (Gülnar and Balcı, 2011:90). “When one talks of mass media, one may mention such means as television, newspaper, radio, in-

ternet, etc. which shall take charge in this process. Television occupies an important place in acculturation due to the fact that it is both an old and widespread mass medium. However, the fact that internet has recently made its influence felt at almost all the stages of social life as a means which gradually increases its popularity and become widespread has caused the eyes to turn towards this means in acculturation” (Gülnar and Balcı, 2011:90). Considering the evaluations made in terms of the general use of the internet, one usually comes across the outcomes of the following type: “And Işık (2007:124-130) has identified nine factors which are effective in people’s use of the internet in her study which she carried out on the effects of internet and internet addiction on 563 students which she selected form 14 different faculties of the Gazi University. These are chat/interaction, avoidance of daily stress, inquiring, quest for friendship/renovation, fantasy/sexuality, time spending, play/entertainment, escapism/quest for freedom and download” (Gülnar and Balcı, 2011:86). Even though observation and avoidance are significant motivations, it may be said that the use of internet basically satisfies the needs for entertainment and interaction. As a quality mine of information which has some functionality in acculturation or enculturation, the old media book, and its counterpart in digital media and their generality and types of use should be questioned at this point. In this sense, the electronic book and electronic library which may be considered components of high culture in the present day are included in the types of assets of high culture in the new media in the paper. In the present day, academic publishers still make a living by selling books to a great extent although they are interested in the opportunities which online publishing offers. Readers do not usually want to sit and read the text on the screen or print out all or part of the book. Academicians and teachers know that their students are reluctant in purchasing thick voluminous books and that the do not want to lose time by reading non-stop. When students are required to write an essay on any subject, it is observed that a majority prefers on-line resources. As the old media, book tries to survive in a digital world in which knowledge is increasingly stored, communicated and accessed more electronically.

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CONCLUSION The new media is a term preferred for those media applications in which digital technologies and computer are used in this way or that. The new media has further become the key term of education and culture. Digital networks dream’s linking the man and the knowledge to each other in the world is considered to be the technological revolution of the 1990s. The 21st century has been formed by this revolution. Internet, World Wide Web and the new technologies of this generation have deeply affected the people from the business world and ordinary people. As it has been seen in the example of book, revolutionary changes which occurred in societies and lives are not to be undervalued. The importance of such changes is greater than the Gutenberg’s revolution although they are usually associated with the invention of the printing machine in Europe.

of internet as a mine of information show, the use of internet which facilitates access to information for high values shall remain an important question mark in this age in which even the relationship of the modern intelligentsia with the high culture has softened. The following may be said as the final words about the old and new form of existence of the “book”: While dreams hid between the covers of the books once upon a time, first cinema, then television and now computer offer dreams and fantasies. Compared to the pleasure taken from what is narrated, what is offered by the technological media seems to be much more attractive. In other words, no distress is experienced in narratives instead of the visuality which is easy to consume, and while the analog disappears, internet prevails in the new cultural practices.

Internet allows for interpersonal relations between individuals via computer technologies (Gülnar and Balcı, 2011:68-69). The production of the book as the old media has been closely related with the development of the technology from the very beginning. However, technology is not needed during the use of the book; reading a book is a manual action. It does not allow technological contamination; it is healthier and more environmentalist in these terms. Yet, the use of electronic book or library requires using the computer and internet, i.e. technology. Continuous dependence on or exposure to energy is concerned in the use of book basing on high technology, and what kinds of problems this issue will cause in the future in terms of human health is still disputable. It may be concluded by what is told throughout the paper that the new media-oriented use of the book is not covered by elite or high culture. Consumption culture allows to be carried away by entertainments offered by the popular culture. In accordance with this opinion, considering the choices of use of the internet as a modern mass media, it may be said that it rather has a use for entertaining the masses as it has been emphasized before. In the meanwhile, the content of the elite culture has softened and the modern intelligentsia has become partly interested in the culture which we call elite. And the masses have changed into cultural consumers (Berger, 2012:53). As the foregoing results of the use

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Artun, A. (2011). Çağdaş Sanatın Örgütlenmesi. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Berger, A. A. (2012). Kültür Eleştirisi: Kültürel Kavramlara Giriş. (Çev. Ö. Emir). İstanbul: Pinhan yayıncılık. Brody, F. (2001). The Medium is the Memory. In P. Lunenfeld (Ed), The Digital Dialectic: New Essays on the New Media (130-149) (3rd Printing). Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Brooke, C.G. (2007). Joseph Janangelo and the Analogics of New Media. College Composition and Communication, 59, 288-298. Date of Access May 09, 2011, http//:www.jstore.org/stable/20457000 Calvino, I. (2012). Bir Kış Gecesi Eğer Bir Yolcu. (Çev. E. Yücesan Cendey). 6. baskı, İstanbul: YKY. Dewdney A. ve Ride, P. (2006). The New Media Handbook. New York: Routledge. Inglis, F. (1996). Media Theory. USA: Blackwell Publishers Inc. Gülnar, B. ve Balcı, Ş. (2011). Yeni Medya ve Kültürleşen Toplum. İstanbul:Literatürk. Jeanneney, J-N. (2009). Başlangıcından Günümüze Medya Tarihi (3. baskı). (Çev. Esra Atuk). İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Kürşat, F. ve Özad, B. E. (2005). The Internet and the Public Sphere. In 3rd International Symposium Communication in the Millenium (329-342). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi. Lunenfeld, P. (2001). Screen Grabs: The Digital Dialectic and New Media Theory. In P. Lunenfeld (Ed), The Digital Dialectic: New Essays on the New Media (xiv-xxi)(3rd Printing). Massachusetts: The MIT Press.

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New Structure of Conversation and Being Participative in Cyberspace: Virtual Public Sphere Yrd. Doç. Dr. Cengiz Erdal Sakarya Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi [email protected] ABSTRACT Some main developments have caused to arise the concept of information society that we are in, such as globalization, Post-Fordism, Individualism and network society. Most of the terms mentioned have caused a borderless world through high-speed communication, in which even large amount of information moves in seconds from one point to another, Having encountered those concepts and their facilities the societies have evolved dramatically. Communication has also been effected from those developments that individuals’ communication traditions have changed accordingly. Internet in which new media and social media tools perform has evolved the concept of public sphere enabling users to participate the daily developments around the world either from their home or being mobile eliminating time and space restrictions through ICT devices. In this study the new structure of conversation emerged as a result of virtual environments will be looked into and its applications in cyberspace together with changing nature of human beings’ way of communication with others and their participation in daily news and developments in this environment will be analyzed. News content creation potential of audiences’ participation in online newspapers and in similar environments where new form of public sphere starts to constitute will be scrutinized through examples. Keywords: New Conversation Environment, Changing, Public Sphere, New Media. 1. INTRODUCTION Advent of internet together with technological developments cause the new media tools to spring up, in which conversation between the sender and the receiver of the message has evolved and developed dramatically in a single environment with possible participation of unprecedented number of people, which was unthinkable through traditional media tools. Therefore, mass communication has been transforming from one-way communication to two-way communication through participative nature of cyber-media tools. It is the case especially on reader discussion and interpretation environments of webpages of newspapers, social media and blogs in cyberspace, where readers and participators interactively contribute to the daily news, sometimes being sources of the news, sometimes forming the news with their thoughts and their participations usually not knowing who is the real receiver of the message that they send or the actual sender of the message that they receive without having to be in the same time, in the same place. All Those developments engender a new public sphere to constitute in cyberspace where all sort of issues are brought about and discussed freely.

Societies have gone through certain processes, which have brought about the information age like post-industrialism, individualism, informationalism until they reached to information age 2. From Post-Industrialism to Informationalism Emerging of post-industrialism has made generation of knowledge through information processing, service delivery of economic activities and high information and knowledge content occupations come forward. According to Castells what is most distinctive in historical terms between the economic structures of the first half of the twentieth century is the revolution in information technologies and its diffusion in all spheres of social and economic activity, including its contribution in providing the infrastructure for the formation of a global economy (Castells, 1998:204). Network society and post-Fordism entwined each other closely. It would not be wrong to say that concept of network society emerged from it. Amin states that the network society thesis is closely connected to the constellation of theories and analy-

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ses, which arose in the 1980s under the banner of ‘post-Fordism’ (Amin, as cited in Barney, 2006:10). Hall argues that Post-Fordism is a broader term, suggesting a whole new epoch distinct from the era of mass production, with its standardized products, concentrations of capital and its ‘Taylorist’ forms of work organization and discipline. The debate still rages as to whether ‘post-Fordism’ actually exists and if it does, what exactly it is and how extensive it is, either within any single economy or across the advanced industrial economies of the West as a whole. Nevertheless, term covers at least some of the following characteristics of change; A shift is taking place to new ‘information technologies’ from the chemical and electronic-based technologies. There is a shift towards a more flexible specialized and decentralized form of labor process and work organization and as a consequence, a decline of the old manufacturing base and the growth of the ‘sunrise’, computer-based, hi-tech industries and their regions. There is the hiving off or a constructing out of functions and services hitherto provided ‘in house’ on a corporate basis. There is a leading role for consumption, reflected in such things as grater emphasis on choice and product differentiation, on marketing, packaging and design, on the ‘targeting ‘ of consumers by lifestyle, taste and culture rather than by the Registrar General’s categories of social class. There has been a decline in the proportion of the skilled, male, manual working class and the corresponding rise of the service and white collar classes. In the domain of paid work itself, there is more flexi-time and part-time working, coupled with the ‘feminization’ and ‘ethnicization’of the workforce. There is an economy dominated by the multinationals, with their new international division of labor and their greater autonomy of nation-state control. There is the ‘globalization’ of the new financial markets. Finally, there is the emergence of new patterns of social divisions – especially those between ‘public’ and ‘private’ sectors and between the two-third who have rising expectations and the ‘new poor’

and underclass of the one-third that is left behind on every significant dimension of social opportunity (Hall, 1997:224-225). 3. Society and Indivisualisation As societies are living and learning systems they are in constant process of change and development. As Giddens says; ‘Our activities both structure – give shape to – the social world around us and at the same time, are structured by that social world. Human societies are always in the process of structuration’ (Giddens, 2009:9). According to Pelletier change and change are fundamental processes of any living system and change seems to be inevitably linked with the partial or total destruction of what has gone before. Wallace proposes that all individuals maintain an explicit or implicit world-view or set of beliefs and opinions concerning how the environment, culture, government and other people function. Wallace conceptualizes that world view as a ‘mazeway’: ‘It is functionally necessary for every person in society to maintain a mental image of the society and its culture, as of his own body and its regularities, in order to act in ways which reduce stress at all levels of the system. The person does, in fact, maintain such an image. This mental image I have called ‘mazeway’ … The ‘mazeway’ is nature, society, culture, personality and body image, as seen bye one person’ (Wallace, as cited in Pelletier, 1979:6-7). Due to social and environmental changes, the mazeway is never sufficiently comprehensive to interpret incoming data for the individual. When an overload of data occurs, the world view of that person must undergo a marked change, which Wallece terms as ‘revitalization’. Although the disruption of the old mazeway may occur over a prolonged period of time, process of revitalization is seen as ‘usually occurring as a moment of insight, a brief period of realization of relationships and opportunities. The formulation also seems normally to occur in its initial form in the mind of a single person rather than to grow directly out of group deliberations. As these fragments of individual insight begin to coalesce, a new order emerges in place of the old. Very often this new order is ushered in by the visionary experience of one individual who embodies the highest aspirations of the new culture (Pelletier, 1979:7). Burgers argues that the process of social narrowing, the consequences of technological, economic

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and spatial development, lead to a greater distance in social etiquette and a crumbling of social connections. Following Elias, he puts out that as the scale of society grows and many kinds of relationships become more intense, so self-repression and self-control becomes greater. Secondary, distanced relationships become increasingly typical of social interaction (Burgers, as cited in Frissen, 1999:136). According to Frissen, individualization is both a product and a cause of depillarisation. The disappearance of the pillar as a source of identity has greatly strengthened the element of individual choice and individual autonomy. The greater importance of personal choice has removed much of the pillars’ reason for existing. The welfare state has taken over many of the pillars’ functions. In that respect, the growth of the state has also contributed to individualization (Frissen, 1999:137). 4. INTERNET AND VIRTUAL REALITY Advent of internet created a new environment called virtual space in which a new form of reality named ‘virtual reality’ was emerged. Virtual reality is a specific application, a configuration of different technologies. Patkin describing the virtual reality says that; Virtual reality is a computer interface that enables people to participate directly in realtime three dimensional environments created from computer-generated simulated environments, digitized images of people and objects or imported video (Patkin, 2003:205). Virtuality has surrounded us and embraced by many of us in a considerably short period of time. It appears and takes part in our lives sometimes as an image, sometimes as a conversation, sometimes a way of sending a message or participating a news debate over an online news paper’s website. Virtual space is the place that is not real but appears to be real. In our age include cyberspace, the internet the telephone, television and virtual reality. Virtual reality is the space that comes into being when you are on the phone: neither exactly where you sit, nor wherever the person is, but somewhere in between. There is now increasingly little difference between what used to be described as the real and the virtual. The complicated area of the interaction between the global and the local that is the site of contemporary cultural practice is both real and virtual at once, therefore the paradoxical title virtual reality (Mirzoeff, 2003:91). Frissen uses virtualization as a metaphor for the significance that the expansion of ICT has for organizations, politics and administration. In academic writing, virtual reality is discussed in much the same way: on the one hand, as a particular, techno-

logical application; on the other, as a new reality in cyberspace. (Frissen, 1999:195-196). Burke and Briggs states that; it seems that virtual community established beyond space and time. Virtual reality happens when computer disappearing and you turn into a ghost in the machine. There is a new emphasis in the fields of geography and ecology. Apart from a concept of cyber, word of region has gained importance. In the years of internet word of dream started to be used in broader meanings. So, it is possible to dream on the beach of internet (Burke and Briggs, 2004:349-350). 4.1. Cloned Individuals: Virtual Identities Our identities are the proofs and the signs of our existence in societies and they differs us from others. It tells others who we are throughout our lives. Barney describes identity as it reflects both a person’s associations with and her distinction from, other persons. Identity is comprised by the ideas that people have for each other and for themselves Identity is people’s source of meaning and experience (Barney, 2007). Internet has emerged a new form of life so called virtual reality, in which people may have many different virtual identities unlike real life contacting with others in that environment. That is why restrictions and responsibilities, which real identities impose on us, are not the case in cyberspace. As it is much easier to hide virtual identities from each other rather than it is in real life. Castells says that he understands by identity, as it refers to social actors, the process of construction of meaning on the basis of a cultural attribute or related set of cultural attributes that is/are given priority over other sources of meaning. He continues that the building of identity is a project of a different life, perhaps on the basis of an oppressed identity, but expanding toward the change of society as the prolongation of this project of identity. The rise of the network society calls into question the process of construction of identity during that period, thus inducing new forms of social change. This is because the network society is base on the systematic disjunction (Castells, 1997:6-11). 5. Evolution of Communication Tools Electronic has been developed dramatically in information age engendering to facilitate our lives considerably through electronic devices. More electronic becomes mainstream of our lives, more our lives and our living habits change. Communication is one of the most conspicuous field in realizing the trans-

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formation that electronic has caused. Cyberspace, in which new communication takes place, provides us with what it is called “communication revolution”. Looking at the scene and developments that occur around us, it is not hard to infer that we have been embracing those e-communication tools and entwining with them like life sources of our lives. Before electronic communication stepped into our lives, we may not have realize how important and indispensible the communication itself for us or either communication did not have enough opportunity to show its significance in our lives as well as it does now. There is no doubt that especially mobility has given communication what it needed in terms of spreading among individuals with an extreme velocity. Mobility and mobile communication have caused to change many traditional ways in humans’ lives much more than any previous types of communication. Each and every communication tool emerged in the history was embraced eagerly by individuals, which is the indication of their attractiveness among their users. No matter how radically communication tools have been developed, none of the new communication tools has encompassed to disappear the previous ones, but what happened was, as a result of the latest one’s attractiveness of its utilization and making the life easier for the audiences, almost all of the old media tools’ usage decreased and/or their reasons of usage transformed sometimes together with appealing organ of audiences perception. If we look into mass media tools’ evolution in the societies: For instance, long years of book’s sovereignty alone as a mass media tool, through which time and space difference gradually started to disappear for the first time in the history, then newspaper emerged, the eye was the stimuli for both, caused to shorten time and space difference to weeks trough weekly newspapers and then daily newspapers engendered to shorten it to days. As books and newspapers do not have the same sort of content, they do not affect each other’s existence and their importance for audiences. Following the telephone when it first came out, the radio has not caused to change book’s and newspaper’s importance radically for its users although its programs had similar contents for the audience, but most importantly it appealed to a different stimuli, which is ear for the first time in mass media tools’ history. At that time, the radio was one of a kind as an entertainment media tool through its various entertainment and cultural programs as well as being an instantaneous news source for its audiences, through which time and space difference shorten to almost hours as a result of same day news broadcastings for the first time reaching many others

at the same time. Emergence of TV has noticeably diminished radio’s popularity substituting its place appealing to both the eye and the ear at the same time through its nature of transforming radio’s all audio contents to their audiovisual versions together with its live news broadcasting feature from the original source of the news, in other words, from the scene, which caused time and space difference disappeared completely for the audiences, for whom need and utilization of radio changed and minimized, but never disappeared. High technology and internet backed new media brought about startling experiences like being participative, through which audiences became active content creators for the first time in mass media history. So, the most conspicuous features of new media’s attractiveness for the audiences are active participation, its continuity, mobility, its nature of providing the fast flow of information as a result of high speed internet connection, rising of importance of visual communication over other types, ease of sharing of all types of contents including daily experiences and instantaneous moods as a new form of being social and staying in contact with others, trough which being a part of network society is realized. 6. From Web1.0 To Web2.0: Interactivity And Change Of Public Sphere Transiting from web1.0 to web2.0 developed communication on cyberspace substantially. Mass communication evolved and changed from one way to two ways interactive communication as a result of web.2.0, which caused new discussion and information exchange environments to emerge as receivers of the messages are able to involve in instant communication through online newspapers and social media tools without time and space restrictions. As a result, receivers of the messages have become producer of the contents of mass media messages instead of being passive receivers. Being able to participate in live discussions on TVs started with text messages and then the internet environment replaced participation of through text messages. Especially through social media tools like twitter provide the audiences of mass communication with the opportunity of being active and participative in life programs. Participating audiences most of the time guide the directions of live discussion programs as participants’ thoughts and contributions are also taken into account and discussed in those programs. As a result of interactive and participative nature of online newspapers and social media tools, media companies and especially the governments have

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become more aware of public opinion on current matters discussed in social and mass media. It can be said that social media tools and participative nature of online newspapers through reader comments provide public with the most democratic and easy way in expressing their thoughts and feelings through ICT devices. Any place where public meet each other and/or come together as to constitute a kind of public opinion is called public sphere. It operates as an intermediary of a shared world where democracy is legitimized. In that sense, Interactive structure of social media has sprung up a new form of public sphere in cyberspace, which is so called virtual public sphere, for public with out having to become face to face in certain places to discuss daily matters and participate in developments that they find important for themselves and for their countries’ well being eliminating time and space differences. As a result of information moving fast around individuals through internet and ICT devices, each and every person has become aware of others’ opinions more than ever before. Online newspapers’ news debate environments enable users to participate, which perform as kind of discussion rooms where anyone participates expressing his or her feelings freely, while some other individuals comment on what previous person said. Those discussions sometimes cause some other news to emerge reflecting readers tendency on those particular issues. Furthermore; electronic developments enable newspapers to organize polls on certain subjects on their websites where users participate reading the news and hours later results are revealed reflecting participants’ way of thinking. Democratic nature of social media tools and online newspapers enable public to take part - interactively and instantly - to the current issues that engage their governments’ agenda through discussions, which constitutes virtual public sphere for the citizens. In that sense those developments in public communication provide the Governments with the unique opportunity to hear and pay attention to their citizens’ expectations, opinions, common sense and even their judgments on certain matters that interest them. As Burke says, opinion of the public is a known part and an apparatus of the legislative power. Burke continues to say that individuals think to be interested in all public matters as they have the right to constitute and express an opinion on those matters in a free country. Everyone may define, exam and discuss those matters. Bringing

those matters to their daily concerns of their thoughts and exploration, many citizens reach to the level of their acceptable knowledge, while some of them acquire remarkable information. Real public wisdom and experience are found in the workshops of the free countries. (Burke, as cited in Habermas, 2009). According to Habermas; contentment of the Public, who produce thought is not a simple opinion, which springs up from a proclivity and/ or an alacrity, but it rather emerges from a specific contemplation and public debate on the public agenda (Habermas, 2009). So, Governments should take the most out of the advantage of hearing their citizens through internet’s participative environments like social media environments as to make them take part on the public agenda in realizing the democracy’s participative nature. Virtual public sphere enabling many people to make their voice heard, transformed the public sphere to be more democratic saturating the opportunity of participation to almost all individuals who have internet connections. So, advent of internet-based cyber-communication has also caused bourgeois-based public sphere concept to evolve, making it more public-based. Consequently, apart from the elections, for the first time in the history public have some other ways to express their thoughts and feelings about their concerns as a result of developments in communication as far as those cyber environments are let to use freely by citizens. 7. Conclusion Societies have gone through certain phases and or ages, which are called with their patterns of production like agricultural society, industrial society and latest one that we are in is information society. Each one seemed to be striking in their times bringing about new ways of living and experiences to human beings along with economic and cultural changes. Aforementioned ages have also shaped how people make use of knowledge either in agricultural age or in industrial age, but labor power has always been the essence of those ages. The main role of the information in those ages is to shape and bring about new ways of benefiting and managing the labor. We encountered new approaches like Taylorism, Fordism and so on. In information age the information itself has become the foundation of the age and it is being used to reach the knowledge, meta-information and meta-knowledge through information networks and information highways. Therefore information itself and information management have

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become the main concern of the age. What made it possible of information to be the base of the age is extension of information in time and space and fast moving of substantial amount of information form one point to another regardless of space. Besides, technology and technological developments together with the internet have become the impetus of information flow in the information age. Those developments and transformations have taken to mass communication’s monolog structure to a different level in which receivers are not only consumers of mass media messages, but they are also producers of those messages being sources of pro-

duction process through various social media tools. Besides those new participative environments have caused to emerge a new concept of public sphere, namely virtual public sphere. Social media tools like twitter and Facebook have evolved the concept of public sphere extending time and space restrictions. In that sense citizens’ opportunity of participation to Governments’ agenda, which concerns them, has come to a level, which has never been before in the human history. Developing nature of communication indicates its importance in humans’ lives in realizing the participative nature of democracy.

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Smith, M., Online Communication, Routledge, New York, 2005.

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How The Brands Use The Social Media: A Content Analysis On Twitter Öğr. Gör. Dr. Özen OKAT ÖZDEM Ege Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Reklamcılık Bölümü Doç. Dr. Ayşen TEMEL EGİNLİ Ege Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Halkla İlişkiler ve Tanıtım Bölümü Doç. Dr. Sinem YEYGEL ÇAKIR Ege Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Reklamcılık Bölümü Abstract Twitter which is a social net based on web came out as an atmosphere firstly for people to share their feelings, thoughts, events etc. improvements and changes in their daily lives in the year of 2006 when it was developed by Jack Dorsey. Twitter has become a field that is used by companies to share the information related to themselves to their target customers as a result of its being adopted soon by a lot of people and taken advantage of every change by companies in the commercial means is preferred as an attaching means to develop close relationships with their target groups by many companies. In this study, the monthly messages taken and sent by means of twitter of some trademarks that prefer to use twitter as a means of attaching and included to exemplification are aimed to be evaluated by means of content analyse. SOSYAL AĞLAR VE SOSYAL AĞ PAZARLAMASI Son yıllarda bilgisayar temelli iletişim ortamına entegre olmuş sosyal ağlar, iletişim sürecinde kişiler arasında bağlantı yaratmak ve sürdürmek açısından önemli bir hale gelmiştir. Facebook, Twitter, Myspace, Bebo, Xanga, Friendster vb. sosyal ağlar kişilerin kamusal alanda kendilerine yeni bir yer edinme, diğerleri ile paylaşabilme, ortak konuları takip etme, işbirliği sağlama gibi günlük yaşamda yüz yüze iletişim ile sağlanabilen fonksiyonları üstlenmiş görünmektedir. Bu ağlar sayesinde kişiler hem kişisel hem de toplumsal anlamda bir konum elde etmiş olmaktadır. Sosyal ağ; arkadaşlık, akrabalık, değerler ya da finansal değişimler gibi tek/çok yönlü ilişki kuran bireyler ya da organizasyonlardan oluşan gruplardır. Sosyal ağlar her zaman yaşamın içinde kendini gösteren yapılanmalardır, fakat bunları güçlendirerek devam ettirmek genellikle zordur. Coğrafik konumlardaki farklılıklar, zaman darlığı ya da basit insana ait tembellikler nedeniyle insanlar sosyal ağların dışına sürüklenebilmektedirler. Bu noktada internet insanlara kolaylıkla bir araya gelip iletişim kurabilecekleri bir platform yaratmış ve sosyal ağlarda bir devrimin ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur. Sosyal ağ kavramı ile ilgili birçok tanım bulunmakla birlikte kavram, sosyal ağ siteleri ile bağlantının sağlandığı

bir olguyu ifade etmektedir. Sosyal ağ siteleri insanların karşılıklı iletişim kurmalarına olanak sunan ve fiziksel sosyal ağlar gibi sanal toplulukların biçimlendiği zaman ve mekan sınırlaması olmayan ortamlardır (http://www.duoconsulting.com/downloads/ contribute/Guide _to_OnlineSocialNe tworking. pdf., 2008). Bu sosyal ağlar, kişilere var olan ve tanıdığı kişilerle ilişkilerini sürdürebilmesine olanak sağladığı gibi, aynı zamanda hiç tanımadığı ortak ilgilere sahip kişilerle tanışma ve arkadaşlıklar kurma fırsatını da sunmaktadır. Blog ve fotoğraf-video paylaşımı imkanı tanıyan bu ağlar aracılığı ile kişiler arasında etkileşimli bir iletişim yaratılabilmektedir (Ulusu, 2010: 2950). Sosyal ağ sitelerinin geçmişi, bir sosyal ağ sitesi olan “sixdegreees.com”un 1997 yılında kurulmasına kadar dayanmaktadır. İlk dönem sosyal ağ siteleri iş ya da yeni insanlarla tanışma gibi amaçlara odaklanmışlardı ve Güney Kore’de 2001’de yayına başlayan sosyal ağ sitesi Cyworld ve 2002’de ABD’de kurulan Friendster gibi birçok genel site bu konuda gelişim göstermiştir. Dünyanın en büyük iki sosyal ağ sitesi MySpace 2003’de Facebook ise 2005’de yayına başlamışlardır. Facebook 2005’de küçük çaplı başlayan bir uygulama olmakla birlikte 2006’da genel internet kullanıcılarına açılmıştır. Sosyal ağ sitelerinin tarihi gelişimlerine bakıldığında farklı hedef kullanıcı gruplarına ses-

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lendikleri görülmektedir. Örneğin; Facebook başta eğitim amaçlı kurulan bir sosyal ağ sitesi olduğu için MySpace’in kullanıcı kitlesine göre daha eğitimli bir kitleye hitap etmektedir (Thelwall, 2008: 2). “İnsanları sosyal ağları kullanmaya iten motiv temel olarak nedir?” sorusunun yanıtı kişiler arasındaki ilişkilerin temelini oluşturan etmenlerden birinin de yanıtını oluşturmakta ve Kullanım ve Doyum Teorisi ile ifade edilmektedir. Birinci olarak sosyal medyayı kullanmak kişilerin kendilerini anlamak ve kimlik edinmek amacı ile ikinci olarak ise sosyalleşmek, eğlenmek, diğerlerini tanımak ve onlarla bağlantı sağlamak amacıyla elde edilen tatminlere dayanmaktadır. Diğer yandan kişinin gerçek zamanlı ortamlarda kendini ifade etmesinin yanı sıra sanal bir ortamda ve çoğu zaman gerçek zamanı paylaşmaksızın da kendini ifade etmesine bir anlamda kendini açmasına olanak tanımaktadır. Kişinin bu sosyal ağlar aracılığı ile çok sayıda kişi ile bağlantı kurması ve diğerleri tarafından kabul edilmesi kendine olan güveninin gelişmesi ya da artması açısından da önem taşımaktadır. Sosyal ağların elektronik paylaşımları olanaklı kılan alt yapısı ile kişinin eğlenme ve eğitim ihtiyaçlarının da karşılanıyor olması tatmin boyutunu arttırmaktadır (Kim vd.,2010: 1078). Katz’a göre insanların toplumsal ve psikolojik kökenli ihtiyaçları vardır. Bu ihtiyaçlar sonucunda insanlar medya ve diğer kaynaklardan bu ihtiyaçlarını gidermek için birtakım beklentilere girerler. Medyaya maruz kalma neticesinde bu ihtiyaçlarından bazılarını giderirler. Ancak bunun yanında bazı istenmeyen ve niyet edilmeyen sonuçlar da ortaya çıkabilir. Yaklaşıma göre izleyiciler içerikleri çok farklı şekilde yorumlayıp verilmek istenenin dışında kendisine göre sonuçlar çıkarabilir. Bu durum izleyicinin kendi mantığını ve öznelliğini ön plana çıkarmıştır (Yaylagül, 2010 :70-72). Sosyal ağ sitelerinden biri olan Twitter 2006 yılında Jack Dorsey tarafından kendi arkadaşları ile sürekli bağlantı halinde olmak amacı ile geliştirilmiş olup, web temelli sosyal ağ hizmeti sunan kısa mesajların gönderilmesi ve alınmasına olanak tanıyan bir özelliğe sahiptir. Twitter bir anlamda kullanıcıların mikro blogları olarak kullanılmakta, 140 karakter ile mesajlarını iletmelerine (tweet) olanak tanımaktadır. Bununla birlikte Twitter kullanıcılarına çok sayıda konu hakkında sadece belirli kelimeler ya da başlıklar kullanarak duygu ya da düşüncelerini ifade etmeye imkân vermektedir. Tweet takipçileri ise kendi ana sayfalarından takip ettikleri kişilerin o andaki durumlarını, duygularını öğrenebilmektedir bu

nedenle genel olarak tweet olarak ifade edilen bu mesajlar kısadır (Glassman vd., 2010:2-3). Twitter, kişilerin anlık durumlarını ve düşüncelerini diğer kişilerle paylaşması ve diğer kişilerin durumlarını takip edebilmesini sağlayan web temelli sosyal bir ağdır. Diğer sosyal ağlara benzemeyen şekilde 140 karakterle sınırlı olması özelliği nedeniyle kişilerin mesajlarını kısa, basit ve hızlı bir şekilde paylaşmasına olanak tanımaktadır. Twitter’ın diğer bir özelliğe ise bilgiye dayalı mesajların paylaşılmasının yanı sıra, günlük sohbetlerin de yapılmasını sağlamasıdır. Bu nedenle de erkeklerden daha çok kadınlar tarafından kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Bu anlamda kişiler arasında yüz yüze iletişim ile sağlanan geleneksel sosyal ağların yarattığı etkiye yakın bir etki yarattığı ifade edilebilmektedir (Greer ve Ferguson, 2011, 200). Twitter özellikle, eğitim alanında profesyonel eğitimcilerin öğrencileri ya da katılımcılar ile doğrudan iletişim kurmak, bilgi iletmek, sınıf ortamındaki bazı uygulamaları devam ettirmek amacı ile de yoğun olarak kullanılmaktadır. Kişilerarası iletişim sürecinde içsel didaktik konuşmayı sağladığı gibi, karşılıklı iletişimi de mümkün kılması, etkileşim sırasında tarafların birbirlerinin mesajlarına odaklanarak ve geribildirimlerde bulunarak iletişimi sürdürmesi de avantajlar sağlamaktadır (PharmD ve Varadarajan, 2011: 2). Pazarlama perspektifinden sosyal ağ sitelerine bakıldığında, bu sitelerin özellikle eğlence endüstrisi için önemli iletişim alanları oldukları görülmektedir. Sosyal ağ siteleri, internet üzerinde organize edilen ve değerlendirilen pazarlama kampanyalarında örneğin, çevreye dost davranışların geliştirilmesi gibi sosyal pazarlama kampanyalarına yönelik konularda, hedef kitleyi etkilemenin bir yolu olarak kullanılabilmektedir (Thelwall, 2008: 1). İşletmeler kalabalıkları nasıl etkileyeceklerini öğrenirlerse, markaları için bütünsel sosyal kabul temelinde savunulabilir ve anlamlı bir pazarlama konumu yaratabilirler. Sosyal ağ pazarlaması, markanın sanal topluluğunu oluşturan kullanıcıların marka ile ilgili fikirlerinin oluşmasını etkiler. Sosyal ağ araçları, bu süreçte pazarlama iletişimi sürecinin kanalları olarak mesajın yayılması, hedef kitleye ulaşılması ve ikna ediciliği sağlamak açısından yardımcı olmaktadır (Evans, 2008: 36-37).

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A. Kontrol Edilebilir Uyarıcı: Geleneksel pazarlama karması

B. Kontrol Edilemeyen Uyarıcı: Demografik, Kişisel, Kültürel, Davranışsal, Sosyolojik, Ekonomik, Yasal, Çevresel vs.

Siyah Kutu: İşleme Merkezi

Tüketici kararı

Tüketici *Ürün *Marka Seçimi *Bayi Seçimi *Satın alma Zamanlaması

C. WEB Deneyimi: Çevrimiçi Kontrol Edilebilir Pazarlama Faktörleri Web Sitesinin Kullanılabilirliği, İnteraktifliği Güvenilirlik, Estetik, Çevrimiçi Pazarlama Karması

D. WEB 2.0 Deneyimi: Online Kontrol Edilemeyen Pazarlama Faktörleri Bloglar, Sosyal ağlar, Topluluklar, Forumlar, Podcast, Bildiri tahtaları vs.

Tüketici geribildirimi

Şekil 14. Bilgi Temelli Pazarlarda Satın Alma Karar Sürecinde Etkili Olan Faktörler Kaynak: Efthymios Constantinides & Stefan J. Fountain (2008). Web 2.0: Conceptual Foundations and Marketing Issues. Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice. Vol:9, No:3, s.240.

Şekil1: Bilgi Temelli Pazarlarda Satın Alma Karar Sürecinde Etkili Olan Faktörler

Gerçek hayatta tüketicinin dikkatini çekmek çok kolay değildir. Sanal dünyada ise sosyal ağ kullanıcıları markanın elamanı olmayan kendileri gibi insanlardan favori markaları ile ilgili duydukları bilgileri almaya daha açıktırlar. Kişisel ilişkiler ve ilgi alanları üzerinden işleyen bu süreç, tanıdıkların ya da birbirine benzer kişilerin karşılıklı fikir alışveriş ile işlemekte ve yakın ilişkinin gücü temelinde “friendonomics (arkadaş ekonomisi)” olarak da tanımlanabilecek yeni bir kavram ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu yeni ekonomik yapıda kullanıcılar iki yönlü değer yapıları oluşturan marka ve fan kulüpleri, benzer ürünlere yönelen tüketiciler, arkadaş grupları ile anlamlı ilişkiler kurmaktadırlar. Sosyal ağ siteleri yoluyla gerçekleştirilen pazarlama çalışmalarında kullanıcıların ortaya koydukları en önemli tespit, “arkadaşlar zamanımızı boşa harcamaz ve bilmemiz gerekenleri bize aktarır”dır (http:// creative.myspace.com/groups/_ms/nef/images/40161_nef_onlinebook.pdf, 2007: 21-22). Web 2.0’ın etkisinde şekillenen sosyal ağ pazarlamasında, tüketici tercihleri ve kararları pazarlama-

cıların kontrolü dışında kullanıcı merkezli içerikler (araştırmalar, bloglar, etiketleme/tagging, sosyal ağ siteleri, çevrimiçi formlar vb.) tarafından sağlanan girdilerle temellendirilmektedir. Dolayısıyla internet ve özellikle Web 2.0 yeni bir pazarlama bileşeni olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Bu noktada geleneksel pazarlama ve sosyal ağ pazarlaması etkisinde bir tüketicinin karar alma süreçlerinin etkilenmesine yönelik şematik açıklama Şekil 1’de belirtildiği gibidir (Constantinides, Fountain, 2008: 239). Sosyal ağ pazarlaması; sosyal ağ siteleri (YouTube, MySpace, Facebook vb.), sanal dünyalar (Second Life, There, Kaneva vb.), sosyal haber siteleri (Digg, del.icio.us) ve sosyal fikir paylaşım siteleri (Epinions) gibi sosyal toplulukların kültürel yapıları kullanılarak markalama ve iletişim amaçlarının yerine getirilmesi için kullanılan bir tür çevrimiçi reklam türüdür. Sosyal ağ pazarlaması markalara marka tüketici arasındaki iletişimi desteklemek, markanın kişi olarak algılanmasını sağlamak, markanın kişiliğini güçlendirmek, marka deneyimlerini gerçekleştirerek tüketicilerin ilgisini çekmek gibi temel yararlar sağlamaktadır (Tuten, 2008: 19-20).

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TWİTTER UZERİNE BİR İÇERİK ANALİZİ ARAŞTIRMANIN AMACI VE ÖNEMİ 2000’li yıllar, internet ve sosyal medyanın kullanım oranlarının büyük ivme kazandığı yıllar olarak tarihe geçecektir. Özellikle sosyal medyanın, önce Facebook, ardından kişisel bloglar ve Twitter ile gösterdiği gelişim, ticaret sektörünün de ilgisini bu alana kaydırmasına neden olmuştur. Çok geçmeden işletmeler de ilgilerini sosyal medyaya doğru kaydırmış, önce Facebook’u sonrasında da Twitter’ı yaygın olarak kullanmaya başlamışlardır. Bireylerin psikolojik tatmin yöntemleri olan “sesini duyurma”, “kendini ifade etme” ve bilgiye hızlı erişim gibi eylemlerin hayata geçirilmesinde etkili bir araç olan Twitter, 2012 yılında dünyada en gözde (http:// www.business2community.com/b2b-perspective/ organic-b2b-social-media-conversion-ratesrevealed-data-0116988) diğer sosyal medya ortamları arasından ön plana çıkmaktadır. Twitter’ın sosyal medya içerisindeki önemi ve işletmelerin hedef kitleleriyle iletişimi sağlamada Twitter’ı da kullanmaları, araştırmanın, Twitter üzerinden yürütülmesine neden olmuştur. İşletmelerin bu iletişim aracını hangi amaçlarla ve ne şekilde kullandıkları, kullanım biçimlerinin etkili olup olmadığı ya da hangi tür kullanım biçimlerinin daha etkili olduğu yönünde sorulara yanıt aranması, gelecekte sosyal medyayı kullanacak işletmeler açısından yol gösterici olacaktır. ARAŞTIRMANIN ÖN KABULLERİ VE KISITLARI Araştırma kapsamında ele alınan örneklem, Türkiye’de Twitter kullanan markaların takipçi sayısı sıralamasına göre gerçekleştirilmiştir. Twitter’da takipçi artırımı için uygulanmış olabileceği düşünülen hileler araştırmanın ön kabulü olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Araştırmanın kısıtlılığı ise Twitter’ın çok dinamik bir yapıya sahip olması nedeniyle iletilerin sürekli değişkenlik göstermesidir. ARAŞTIRMANIN YÖNTEMİ ARAŞTIRMANIN EVRENİ VE ÖRNEKLEMİ İşletmeler ve markalarının hedef kitle ile olan iletişimlerinde sosyal medyanın önemine bağlı olarak giderek yoğun kullanılan bir araç olan Twitter’da, Türkiye örnekleminde başarı sağlamış markaların iletilerine yönelik içerik analizi çalışmanın yöntemi olarak be-

lirlenmiştir. Yöntemin belirlenmesinde “Understanding Professional Athletes’ Use of Twitter: A Content Analysis of Athlete Tweets” başlıklı çalışma referans olarak alınmıştır. Atletlere yönelik söz konusu çalışmada seçilen örneklem bağlamında, Twitter hesabı analiz edilen atletin son 20 iletisi araştırma kapsamında değerlendirilmiştir. Bu çalışmada da örneklem, referans olarak kabul edilen çalışmaya benzer şekilde seçilmiştir. Örneklem kapsamına, “Türkiye’de takipçi sayısı en fazla olan markalar” alınmıştır. Söz konusu veriler sosyal medyaya ilişkin kullanım verilerini sunan “Social Bakers” adlı internet sitesinden alınmıştır. İlgili sitenin “http://www.socialbakers.com/twitter/ group/brands/country/turkey/page-1/” adresinde yer alan sıralamada “Türkiye Twitter’da En Çok Kazanan Markalar” başlığı altında 36 madde sunulmaktadır ve sıralama takipçi sayısına göre belirlenmiştir. Sıralamada yer alan 36 markanın 2’si dışında tamamının Türkiye’de faaliyet gösteren profesyonel markalar olduğu görülmektedir. Araştırma kapsamı dışında tutulan ‘Ayakkabı Delisi’ adlı bir blog ve ‘Bursa Kültür Sanat’ adlı şehir aktivitelerini duyurmaya yönelik bir oluşum profesyonel marka olarak değerlendirilmemiştir. Bu çerçevede 34 marka örneklem kapsamına alınarak, 680 ileti değerlendirilmiştir. Çalışmanın gerçekleştirildiği Ağustos 2012 dönemi içerisinde rastgele günlerde söz konusu her bir markanın twitter hesaplarındaki son 20 iletisi değerlendirilmiştir. Çalışmanın gerçekleştirildiği dönemde markaların takipçi sayılarına bağlı olarak sıralamada küçük değişimler meydana gelmiş ancak sıralamadaki markalarda değişim gözlenmemiş ilk 34 marka aynı şekilde kalmıştır. Bu nedenle araştırmanın tamamlandığı 31 Ağustos 2012 tarihindeki sıralama esas alınmıştır. Referans olarak alınan çalışmada, profesyonel atletlerin twitter hesaplarına ilişkin gerçekleştirilen içerik analizinde, twitter iletileri etkileşimlilik, spor ile ilgili olmayan iletiler, bilgi paylaşımı, içerik, kendi takımları dışındaki sportif aktivitelere yönelik tartışmalar (rakiplere ilişkin) ve tutundurma kriterleri bağlamında sınıflandırılmıştır. İlgili kriterler, Türkiye’de Twitter’ı en etkin kullanan markalara da uyarlanmış ve bu çalışmada da çalışmanın niteliğine uygun şekle dönüştürülerek tercih edilmiştir. Bu çerçevede, etkileşimlilik kriteri aynen korunmuş, spor ile ilgili olmayan iletiler ‘genel iletiler’ haline dönüştürülmüştür. Bilgi paylaşımı ve içerik aynen bırakılarak analiz sonucunda rakiplere ilişkin tek bir adet bile iletiye rastlanmamış olması araştırmanın sonuç tablosundan ‘rakiplere ilişkin iletiler’ kriterinin çıkarılmasına neden olmuştur. Son olarak da tutundurma kriteri analiz edilecek markaların iletileri için uygun olarak

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kabul edilmiştir. İnceleme kriterlerine ilişkin dikkate alınan unsurlar ise aşağıda sıralanmaktadır: • Etkileşimlilik: Markanın takipçilerine doğrudan yazdığı cevap ve anket sorusu niteliğindeki iletiler bu kapsamda değerlendirilmiştir. • Genel İletiler: Markadan bağımsız gerçekleşen, sosyal yaşama ilişkin iletileri tanımlamaktadır. Bayram kutlaması, milli takımların sportif başarıları gibi iletiler bu kapsama alınmıştır. • Bilgi Paylaşımı: Markanın takip ettiği kişilerden alıntı olarak yayınladığı (retweet) iletiler ve bilgilendirici nitelikteki iletiler bu kapsamda değerlendirilmiştir. İlgili markanın yöneticileri, çalışanları ya da kardeş kuruluşlardan alındığı belirgin olan iletiler ise diğer kriterler bağlamında sınıflandırılmıştır. • İçerik: Eğer söz konusu ileti ekindeki bağlantıya tıklanmadan içerik bakımından anlaşılamıyorsa bu iletiler ‘içerik’ (ekli ileti) olarak değerlendirilmiştir. • Rakipler: Markanın rakiplerinin faaliyetlerine ilişkin iletileri kapsamaktadır. Ancak analiz sonucunda bu kritere ilişkin iletiye 680 ileti içerisinde hiç rastlanmaması, bu kriterin bulgular ve sonuç bölümünden çıkarılmasına neden olmuştur. • Tutundurma: Markaların ürün ve hizmetlerine yönelik gerçekleştirdikleri indirim, hediyeli ürün, yarışma vb. duyuruları bu kapsamda değerlendirilmiştir. ARAŞTIRMANIN VARSAYIMI Araştırmanın amacı markaların Twitter’ı hangi amaçla ve ne şekilde kullandıklarını tespit etmektir. Bu doğrultuda da araştırmanın varsayımı, odak noktası karlılık olan markaların Twitter’ı en fazla “satış tutundurma” amacıyla kullandıklarıdır. Dolayısıyla Twitter’da yazılan iletilerin de bu doğrultuda şekillendiği düşünülmektedir. VERİLERİN ANALİZİ VE BULGULAR Türkiye’de faaliyet gösteren markaların Twitter’daki takipçi sayıları bağlamında gerçekleştirilen içerik analizinde, belirlenen kriterlere göre gerçekleştirilen sınıflandırmaya ilişkin veriler Tablo 1’de gösterilmektedir. Verilerin analizi gerçekleştirilirken belirli markaların twitter iletilerine yönelik bazı özellikler

belirlenmiştir. Takipçi sayısı ile Türkiye’de Twitter lideri olan Turkcell’in etkileşimlilik iletisi olarak sınıflandırılan iletilerinin tamamı mini anket sorusu niteliğindedir. Bunun en temel sebebi olarak, Turkcell’in ‘müşteri hizmetleri’ adı altında farklı bir twitter hesabı daha olmasından kaynaklandığı düşünülmektedir. İkinci sırada yer alan Türk Hava Yolları ise ‘müşteri hizmetleri’ niteliğinde bir twitter uygulaması gerçekleştirmektedir. Çünkü analiz edilen 20 iletinin 13’ü etkileşimlilik kriteri bağlamında değerlendirilmiştir. Üçüncü sıradaki Garanti Bankası’nın ise twitter’ı müşteri etkileşiminden çok bir tutundurma aracı gibi kullandığı görülmektedir. Sıralamada ilk üçün dışında yer alan bazı markalara ilişkin önemli ayrıntılar dikkati çekmiştir. Yedinci sırada yer alan ‘Atlas Jet’in de Twitter’ı Türk Hava Yolları’na benzer şekilde kullandığı görülmektedir. Doritos’un ‘Doritos Akademi’ kampanya konsepti twitter’da çok net olarak görülmektedir. Konsepte uygun yaratılan Prof. Dr. Haydar Ling karakteri için ayrı bir Twitter hesabı açılmış ve Ling’in iletileri bu hesaba ‘retweet’ şeklinde yönlendirilmiştir. Bu iletilerin tamamı içerik bakımından ‘ürün ve hizmetlerle ilgili olmayan genel iletiler’ kapsamında değerlendirilmiştir. OXXO markasının Twitter’ı en etkin ve verimli kullanan markalardan biri olduğu görülmektedir. OXXO markayı twitter’da tam anlamıyla kişiselleştirerek gerçek anlamda etkileşimlilik niteliğine sahip iletiler yayınlamaktadır ve ileti içeriklerinin ‘samimi ve içten’ olduğu dikkati çekmektedir. Memorial Sağlık Grubuna ait hesapta ise genel sağlık bilgileri çok yoğun olarak verilmektedir ki bu durum bir hastanenin doğasına çok uygun görünmektedir. Dumankaya markası ise Twitter’ı çok etkin kullanan, hatta twitter’a özgü yarışma düzenleyen bir marka olarak ön plana çıkmaktadır. Dumankaya İnşaat’ın evaramayason.com adlı emlak sitesinin ziyaretçi sayısını artırmak için Twitter’da #evaramayason hashtag’inin paylaşımını en fazla yapan kişiye ödül vermesi bu durumun göstergesidir. Medical Park markasının ise bilgi paylaşımı olarak görünen iletilerinin büyük çoğunluğunda alt mesaj olarak tutundurma yer almaktadır. Bu durum futbolcuların sağlık kontrollerinin Medical Park’ta yapıldığı duyurularına ilişkin iletilerden anlaşılabilmektedir.

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Twitter Hesapları Analiz Kriterleri TURKCELL (@Turkcell) Turkish Airlines TR (@TK_TR) Garanti Bankası (@garanti) Can Yayınları (@CanYayinlari) Avea (@Avea) Axe Etkisi (@AxeEtkisi) Atlasjet (@Atlasjet) BırakSanaDoveBaksın (@ DoveTurkiye) Ülker (@Ulkerden) Doritos Akademi (@DoritosAkademi) Bank Asya (@bankasya) Bilkom (@Bilkom) Ülker Çizi (@ulkercizi) OXXO (@OXXO) Lidyana (@lidyanacom) Shield ★ Joygame (@ShieldJoygame) BlackBerry Türkiye (@blackberrytr) Oriflame Türkiye (@OriflameTurkiye) LC Waikiki (@LCWaikiki) Memorial Sağlık (@MemorialSG) Türk Ekonomi Bankası (@ tebcomtr) Dumankaya (@DumankayaHaber) NT (@NTTurkiye) KAYRA (@Kayratekstil) Medical Park (@MedicalParkHG) BETA Ayakkabı (@BetaShoes) Rocco (@rocconnect) L’OCCITANE TÜRKİYE (@ loccitanetr) Cafe Palas (@cafepalas) Vergide Gündem (@vergidegundem) Barcin.com (@barcincom) Ernst&Young Türkiye (@ EY_Turkiye) Hürsan Şömine (@hursansomine) DemirDöküm (@DemirDokum) TOPLAM

Etkileşimlilik (Takipçilerle doğrudan iletişim sayısı)

Ürün ve Hizmetlerle İlgili Olmayan Genel İletiler

Bilgi Paylaşımı

6 13 0 3 0 2 14

2 0 5 0 0 7 2

1 0 2 5 2 8 1

3 1 0 9 1 1 1

8 6 13 3 17 2 2

5

7

1

5

2

2

5

2

5

6

2

18

0

0

0

1 5 5 17 11

8 0 3 0 0

0 3 0 0 1

1 10 10 0 5

10 2 2 3 3

1

1

1

16

1

15

0

1

2

2

8

1

0

1

10

1

3

4

0

12

0

1

19

0

0

0

6

1

6

7

7

0

2

1

10

10 4

3 0

2 12

2 0

3 4

1

1

12

2

3

1 8

2 3

0 7

2 0

15 2

1

3

2

0

14

0

3

16

1

0

0

2

12

6

0

10

1

7

0

2

1

2

3

7

7

0

2

0

7

10

5

1

5

0

9

159

92

132

105

190

İçerik

Satış Tutundurma Aktivitelerine İlişkin Duyurular

Tablo 1: Markaların Twitter Hesaplarındaki İletilerin Analiz Kriterleri Bağlamında Sınıflandırılması

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SONUÇ Araştırmanın sonucunda analiz edilen 680 iletinin 190’ı satış tutundurma aktivitelerine ilişkindir. Bu durum, Twitter’ın Türkiye’de faaliyet gösteren markalar tarafından yeterince etkin kullanılamadığının göstergesi olarak ön plana çıkmaktadır. Bir sosyal medya aracı olan Twitter’da insanlar seslerini duyurmak isterken markalarla etkileşimli bir iletişim biçimini benimsemektedirler. Dolayısıyla 159 ileti sayısıyla ikinci sırada yer alan etkileşimlilik kriterine ilişkin iletilerin arttırılması, Twitter’ı etkin kullanan markalar yönünden temel hedef olmalıdır. Bilgi paylaşımına yönelik iletiler ise 132 adet ile üçüncü sırada yer almaktadır. Twitter’ın oldukça sık kullanılan, iletilerin belirli bir içeriğe yönlendirmesi özelliği dördüncü sırada iken, ürün ve hizmetlerle ilgili olmayan genel iletiler 92 adet ile son sırada yer almaktadır. Bununla birlikte, araştırmada ele alınan inceleme kriterleri dikkate alındığında etkileşimlilik (takipçilerle doğrudan iletişim sayısı)

özelliğinin Atlas Jet, Oxxo, BlackBerry Türkiye Twitter hesaplarında yüksek oranda olduğu görülmektedir. Diğer yandan bilgi paylaşımı özelliği açısından Cafe Palas, Vergide Gündem, Medical Park, KAYRA Twitter hesaplarının yüksek olduğu, bu durumun ise söz konusu hesapların takipçileri ile bilgi paylaşımını sağlamasının gerekli olması ile ilgili olduğu düşünülmektedir. İçerik açısından Twitter hesapları değerlendirildiğinde ise Shield ★ Joygame hesabı en yüksek puanı alırken, Can Yayınları, Türk Ekonomi Bankası, Barcin.com hesaplarının ise takipçilerini bilgilendirmeye yönelik içeriklere yoğun olarak sahip oldukları görülmektedir. Satış tutundurma aktivitelerine ilişkin duyurular kategorisi açısından değerlendirildiğinde Avea, Garanti Bankası, BETA Ayakkabı, L’OCCITANE TÜRKİYE, Hürsan Şömine, LC Waikiki, Dumankaya, Oriflame Türkiye, Bank Asya işletmelerin hizmet verdiği sektör nedeniyle takipçilerine ürün ve hizmetleri ile ilgili satış faaliyetlerini gerçekleştirmek için tüm bilgileri ilettikleri ve tutundurma çabaları gösterdikleri görülmektedir.

KAYNAKÇA Constantinides, E.; Fountain, S.J. (2008). “Web 2.0: Conceptual Foundations and Marketing Issues”, Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice, Vol:9, No:3, ss.231-244. Evans, D.

(2008). Social Media Marketing An Hour A Day, Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indiana.

Glassman, M.E., Straus, J. R., Shogan, C. J. (Feb. 2010). Social Networking and Constituent Communications: Member Use of Twitter During a Two-Month Period in the 111th Congress, Congressional Research Service Report. Greer, C. F.,

Douglas A. F. (2011) “Using Twitter for Promotion and Branding: A Content Analysis of Local Television Twitter Sites”, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 55(2), pp. 198–214

PharmD, B. I. F., Varadarajan, R. (2011) “Use of Twitter to Encourage Interaction in a Multi-campus Pharmacy Management Course”, American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2011; 75 (5). Thelwall, M.

(2008). “How are Social Network Sites Embedded in the Web? An Exploratory Link Analysis”, International of Journal of Scientometrics, Infometrics and Bibliometrics, Vol:12, Issue:1, ss.1-8.

Tuten, T.L.

(2008).Advertising 2.0: Social Media Marketing in a Web 2.0 World, USA: Praeger Publishers.

Yaylagül, L.

(2010). Kitle İletişim Kuramları, Egemen ve Eleştirel Yaklaşımlar, Ankara: Dipnot Yayınları.

_____, _____. DUO:Consulting, “Business Person’s Guide to Online Social Networking”, http://www.duoconsulting.com/downloads/contribute/Guide_to_OnlineSocialNetworking.pdf, 2008, (Erişim T:Aralık 2008). _____, _____. Fox Interactive Media, Inc., “Never Ending Friending: A Journey into Social Networking” http://creative.myspace.com/groups/_ms/nef/images/40161_nef_onlinebook.pdf, 2007, (Erişim T: Aralık 2008) Business 2

Community, Organic B2B Social Media Conversion Rates Revealed, Ocak 2012, Erişim: http://www.business2community.com/b2b-perspective/organic-b2b-social-mediaconversion-rates-revealed-data-0116988.

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Social Media And The Transformation Of News: The Example Of “Arab Awakening?” Poyraz Gürson Assistant Professor and Chairperson, Department of Public Relations and Advertisement, Faculty of Management, Atilim University, Ankara, Turkey Email: [email protected] Serpil Karaaslan Graduate Student, Department of Public Relations and Publicity, Faculty of Communication, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey Email:[email protected] ABSTRACT

At the age of equality of knowledge and power, while the mass media transmitting information to large group of people simultaneously keeps its importance, new communication technologies have made the circulation of information more efficient with providing people to express themselves through communicating interactively and transferring information from one place to another quickly. On the other hand, the social media has changed news in traditional media as it has changed communication systems of people, companies, and groups, In this situation people using second generation internet tools such as Facebook, Twitter, Youtube etc. can turn an event into news easily. Movements in Arabic countries called Arab Spring starting in late 2010 and still ongoing is a good example for this kind of usage of internet. In this study, the ever changing concept of news via social media, its impacts on the concept of traditional media news and society will be tried to analyze in the context of ongoing Arab revolts. Key words: Social media, transformation of news, Arap awakening

INTRODUCTION

mass media, the social media, which has grown

The mobile phones we always carry with us, the computers at which we look at least couple of times a day, the television which accustoms itself to us like a person living in our house, billboards widely used in streets, Phones, iPads...All of these tools remind us the fact that we live in the information society on a daily basis. With the abundance of information through these tools, we have taken the road a future of both not asking and not knowing are shameful. Of course, this is not a remote future. Internet is the most important and popular source from where we can take information. Unlike the

exponentially in prominence since the 2000s, has

changed the way we connect, discover, and share information with others at any time and space.

Social media has attractive features and innovations for journalists among the strict institutional rules, fixed time and space. But at the same time, it has brought in the risk of threatening the journalism. It has influenced traditional media news based on ideologies and profitability. Now everyone has computer and internet access so everyone can have their own media and can form their own news as well. So, new media has given birth to a new form of journalism and a new news concept.

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During Arab Revolts starting at the end of 2010 and still ongoing, people has produced their own news through taking their own videos, photos and they conveyed these news all over the world over the internet. Therefore, they have been able to inform the world about the happenings in the region.

With the new media, speed and the size of the coverage area has grown in both geographic and demographic sense and a new form of communication, having too large memory capacity to be compared with the human mind, has emerged (Törenli,2005,p.155 ).

In this study, the ever changing concept of news via social media, its impacts on the concept of traditional media news and society will be tried to analyze in the context of ongoing Arab revolts. This effort also emphasizes on the need for historical-sociological analysis for Arab revolts rather than for technological determinist approach.

Users/consumers have gotten the control of information as a result of users’ interaction with other users with the development of second generation internet tools such as Facebook, Tweeter (Twitter) and Youtube.

NEW COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES: INTERNET AND SOCIAL MEDIA The mass media can transmit repeated messages to the masses through a large number of technical means (Geray, 2003,p.17), so it still retains its importance and prevalence. However the mass media doesn’t give the opportunity off seeing or hearing each other to so many audience. Contrary to mass media, new media allows users to interact with each other in various forms. This feature of the new media has become one of the most debated topics in the field of communication. New communication technologies have a channel that allows interaction between the transmitter and receiver. But the mass media does not have such a channel and requires the presence of another channel for audiences to interact. For example, the phone is needed to connect to a live television or radio program. In addition, this new media is a massless media because of allowing user to send a message to millions of people or only one of them. And also it is an unsimultaneous media because of giving the opportunity receivers to get message at different times (Geray, 2003, pp.17–19). Internet communication refers to a process that comprises more than one form of communication such as text, audio, graphics, images, video...It is independent from time and space, a global communication form having local, international and national access facilities. These features of internet set it apart from the mass media which can only produce, collects and distribute message and make it a social communication medium allowing interactions of individual-individual, individual-group and group-individual (Timisi,2003, p.124).

Web 2.0 is used to refer to the period after Web 1.0. Its tools can be completely user-driven and has completely changed the concept of internet by starting the period of social media (Tosun 2009:48’ Öymen Dikmen, 2011,p.165). Anymore, communication takes place on a platform not only open to professional media members and distributors but also open to the public. With this technology, consumers / users can provide content to the internet just like companies. They may have three roles simultaneously as creator, consumer and distributor of content. To give an example for this kind of user-generated online content, digital videos, blogs and podcasts creation, mobile phones, photography, wikis, social networking sites and user forums, posts, etc. (Uzunoğlu 2010,215’den akt. Öymen Dikmen, 2011:161). THE EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS OF THE NEWS MEDIA The emergence of news can be traced as far back as the history of mankind, journalism has emerged as a product of a particular social formation and in a certain stage of social development. Journalism, as a specific form of communication, created by capitalism has undergone changes and transformations in parallel with changes and transformations occurring in the society in which it operates (Uzun, 2006).This means that news being product of journalist and content of the newspaper has undergone changes. Especially in the transition from oral to written cultures, the newspaper with the ‘news phenomenon’ was more interesting than book. It served as a tool towards meeting the people’s needs for daily news through offering current events and reviews. The newspaper has changed in terms of content over time. It contained news and advertising until the seventeenth century and political issues in

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the eighteenth century and during the nineteenth century, content was vastly shaped by financial and cultural preferences

stitutions, was tabloidisation of newspapers and audio-visual broadcasting organizations, so they gained private /commercial media feature.

However, newspaper remained an expensive commodity until the development of techniques in the production of cheap paper (Törenli, 2005, pp.165–166).

As a result of this commercial concern, media organizations tried to make this audio-visual environment attractive for advertisers. So they were faced with the necessity of broadcasting in a serial manner or necessity of printing a lot more than before, in proportion to the size of the target group, in other words in proportion to the size of the market share. Of course, this meant new job opportunities for those who had power and money. Thus, the capital community and business leaders began to fill the gap arising from financial hardship in the field of media ownership.

The newspaper became cheaper as a result of technological advances which facilitated the processing, storage and distributing of information and paper manufacturing technologies which produced abundance of cheap papers. Therefore, with the introduction of cheaper paper, the newspaper could be available to a larger part of the population and newspapers and journalism acquired the social institution character. This new stream of newspapers and journalism aiming to reach every segment of society led to changes in newspaper content. While a part of the daily newspapers remained focused on daily news and opinions, other part adopted magazine style content. From the first half of the twentieth century until the mid-nineteenth century, newspapers and journalism protected these qualities largely. During the two world wars, newspaper took on two opposing functions due to the effects of the war period. Depending on the purposes of opposing sides of wars, they served to accelerate peace or to feed hostilities between sides. During this period, war correspondence emerged symbolizing producing real-time news and covering stories firsthand from a war zone. In addition, radio and television, being tools for ‘journalism’ as well as for entertainments, were introduced to communication medium with their high-speed, audio-visual and live news facilities. Thus new process of restructuring began. In this new structure, a model of audio-visual media mainly broadcasted news, especially the latest news. This type media didn’t ever broadcast entertainment programs (movie, competition and so on) or broadcast these kinds of programs being put them in a suitable format for news style. Except during periods of war, industrialization and socio-economic requirements specific to the process of capitalization came forth. The implications of these, in terms of capitalist state-run media in-

Taken together, news media emerged as a result of the process of change in socio-economic conditions although it became concrete with electronic communication techniques (Törenli, 2005,pp.167–170). The Interaction Traditional News Media New Media Since the mid-1990s,a new concept of journalism has started to appear that can be defined with international news flow, interaction, speed, diversity, and access properties. Though this new concept of journalism embodies a number of opportunities for both audience / users and journalists, it has brought many new definitions and questions about the characteristics of the traditional media (Şakı Aydın,2011,p.103). New media has made itself felt at every stage of journalism and has changed the workflow and working conditions of journalists. Face to face communication between journalists and news sources has moved to the virtual-electronic environment. New media methods have been used mainly in the process of news gathering and news processing, presentation and also distribution activities have also changed (Törenli,2005,pp.173–174). News has begun to include more data-based knowledge, news topics have varied and accelerated the process of forwarding the news has accelerated (Kazaz, 2007). With the emphasis on imagery and photography of news texts, presentation and processing of graphics, shapes, numbers etc. has changed and the richness of news presentation has become as important as news content.

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The best example of (for) the interaction of traditional media news with new media news has been broadcasting by Al-Jazeera during Arab revolts began in late 2010 and still ongoing. During the uprisings, traditional media followed the developments through local and global press agencies instead of sending reporters to region. Traditional media organizations, however, had difficulty in getting true news. Even BBC, CNN, as the main stream, global media outlets, have had difficulty in getting news about the revolts. Al Jazeera has made an exception in this environment. It informed the world about the developments in the region by placing reporters in the important locations of the capitals of the Arab and by social media news despite internet censorship. As a traditional news organization, Al Jazeera has shown that how traditional media can get, develop and broadcast news and how it can integrate these news with social media (Polat,2011,p.32). Internet is a fast and effective research tool for journalists, provides different research opportunities like a data bank; it helps to bring the news into a ready product for common use of written / audio / visual media; it moves the journalism beyond the boundaries of time and space (Törenli,2005,pp.174–175–213). On the other hand, absorbing the boundaries in time and space, new media technologies has brought about a mistaken idea that much effort is unnecessary for the production of news. Also, news values have changed that determine newsworthiness for compression of time and space. The most interesting and the most important events are used as news stories In accordance with the purpose of media professionals. In addition, the compression of time and space influences negatively the sensitivity of journalists to questioning the quality of their works and news produced by them (Törenli, 2005,pp.195-202).

140 character ‘tweet’ s twitter, text, and images, links, videos, , photographs are shared on sites like Flickr, You Tube, Facebook with the whole World simultaneously (Eryazar,2011:http://www.dorduncukuvvetmedya.com/3645-yurttas-gazeteciligi-ve-bloggerlar.html). Of course, the internet that (which) offers such advantages for journalism is also a privileged medium for activist movements. Without doubt, the most popular and the most recent example of digital activism is Wikileaks web site. A digital activism site called Wikileaks has begun to broadcast thousands of internal correspondence of the U.S. State Department diplomats around the world piece by piece in late 2010 (Polat,2011,p.18).The purpose of the site is to function as a ‘disclosure document’ so that those who work in large corporations and government bodies can report the illegal practices in their workplaces (Ayan,2011,p.70). This web site bothers the centers of global power and so it tries to work under the political, legal and commercial pressures of these powers (Polat,2011,p.18). Meanwhile, thanks to the spreading cheaper computers, digital cameras, ordinary citizens have the opportunity to make their own news. These produced news can reach anywhere in the world where internet access is possible. The citizens who have experienced or witnessed the events –namely news sources according to the terminology of journalism- have had a tool to bring their own stories (stories that haven’t been seen in traditional media corporations) to the masses (Uzun,2006). Regardless of time and place, social media reporters can create news / content on internet every hour, every minute.Moreover, these amateur news / information are used subsequently by the major television news channels and internet news portals (Eryazar,2011:http://www.dorduncukuvvetmedya. com/3645-yurttas-gazeteciligi-ve-bloggerlar.html).

THE CHANGING FACE OF NEWS WITH SOCIAL MEDIA: CITIZEN JOURNALISM AND DIGITAL ACTIVISM

One of the most notable examples in recent history showing the power of citizen journalism over the traditional media has been the 2009 Iranian presidential election.

Individual use of advanced communication technology has made the state’s monopoly of control over the flows of information erode. Anymore, every newsworthy event that is happening in the world takes place on social media before newspapers, radio, television news channels.

Following the announcement of the election results, Mousavi supporters poured into the streets and mass demonstrations were made.Iranian state deported the media outlets such as CNN and the BBC and limited news broadcasting to the Iranian state television news by applying a strict press censorship.

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However, it was unpredictable for Iranian state that opposition groups in Iran would send images, videos taken by them and information all over the world through social networks, insomuch that many TV channels around the world used these images as a source of news (Engin,2011,pp. 36–37). It is so clear that this new media has aroused great interest among people and has an efficient and fast structure. Now, journalism can be done freely without being exposed to censorship and in the grip of broadcasting policies set by someone. This new system is, as a revolt against built-in system procedures, trying to overcome all the obstacles inherited from the old system.This new way of networking and journalism is a kind of platform with no editors, auto-censoring, rejected articles and firing any in charge of the news/articles (Engin,2011,p.35). In this scheme, the news value is determined by the individual criteria without depending on financial and rating concerns. In addition, as social media brings ordinary people together, it can bring communities organizing towards the same goal together. It has created an environment that links social movements and has accelerated actions of these movements with its increased opportunities for people (Engin,2011,p.37) NEW MEDIA AND THE ARAB REVOLTS How these all began? In December of 2010 in Tunisia, Jasmine Revolution took place as a result of the uprising sparked by a Tunisian young street vendor’s setting himself on fire because of his economical problem. Revolts initiated in Tunisia in December 2010 has spread throughout the Arap region including the Egypt, Libya, Bahrain, Morocco, Algeria, Yemen, Jordan, Syria countries.

according to some opinions, WikiLeaks’ documents accusing the head of state have an important role in sparking political upheaval in Tunisia. However, it will only be possible to set a comprehensive overview about the Arab Revolts and Jasmine revolution with taking into account the socio-historical background associated with the growth of the rebellion. Tunisia that declared its so-called independence from France in 1959 has been under the influence of the French colonial for a long time. The second president Zein Ben Ali also followed a pro-Western foreign policy as his predecessor (Dede,2012, www.glopol.org). Yet, in the year 2008, some changes took place in relations between France and Tunisia.In October 2008, in Paris, two Arab young people were shot by the police on the grounds that they refused to show their identity cards and tried to escape, and then the angry Arab youths in France organized car-burning actions to avenge his two friends. After these events, the French government implemented strict immigration laws tightening restrictions on immigrants’, especially North Africans’ entrance and stay in France. Because of Government’s immigration policy, thousands of young immigrants faced with the danger of being deported, being unemployment and being encouraged to commit crime (Kılıçaraslan, 2009, www.bianet.org).These developments have given a new dimension to relations between France and Tunisia. We are aware that Tunisia-France relations and Arab revolts require a more detailed socio-historical analysis. However within the limitations of this study, for now we can only offer that Tunisian revolution should be considered in the context of Tunisia’s colonial history, the French immigration policies in recent history and the business relationship between Tunisia and France. From Tunisia to Egypt and Libya

The country’s anti-regime protests were organized through Twitter and Facebook and other social networks, in particular the young Tunisian opposition has been mobilized.

After Tunisia, social networks have impacts on revolts in Egypt as well. In order to support the Egyptian rebels Wikileaks’ new documents emerged about Egypt President’s cooperation with some gun lobbies.

Tunisian revolution is called ‘social media revolution’ or ‘facebook revolution’ by many and

During the movements, the Egyptian activists’ messages sent through social networks were submitted

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all over the world. Google and Twitter tried to improve social network by developing alternative systems in the Egypt where the Internet was cut off (Engin, 2011,p.37). In meantime, it is a little difficult to say that the usage of social media in Tunisia was similar to social media usage in Egypt.It was different from Egypt in some respects.In Tunisia social media was used actively after the revolt began. It was used as a means of getting organized and transferring the reactions of demontrators. Before the Arab Spring, the use of social media in Tunisia was banned or restricted. But, in Egypt social media was used against the regime prior to the start of the rebellion. Although the literacy rate in Tunisia is higher than in Egypt, internet censorship restricted the use of social media (Tekek,2011, www.orsam.org). Herewith we can say that social media was used more actively in Egypt than in Tunisia. Opponents of the various classes of society participated in the anti-dictatorship movements in Tunisia and in Egypt. A broad coalition of Muslims,workers, unemployed people LGBT organizations got organized during the days in Tahrir Square. Tweets and Facebook messages sent by the participants in Tahrir square and of course Al-Jazeera’s successful broadcasting announced developments all over the world (Özinanır,2011). The world was immediately informed about the important details of protests through the # Jan25 and # egypt Twitter headlines. Images taken with mobile phones posted on Facebook and Youtube (Polat,2011,pp.31-32). In the course of actions of people from all walks of life, it is a notable that the LGBT movement took part in demonstrations as an active component of the revolution in Egypt which has a conservative society. LGBT people were mobilized, especially using GayEgypt.com site (Özinanır,2011). As the wave of revolt swept through the Arab world, after the Egypt revolts’ next tide caught the Libya. As in the previous countries, there was censorship of the internet in Libya. This censorship and some other factors keeps us from saying easily that there was active presence of social media in Libya and a close relationship between social media and revolt in Libya. Leaving no time for social media to gain popularity among protestors, Libya entered the

process under the shadow of weapons and the process was carried out entirely by military means. Early intervention of NATO in this environment made it more complicated. On the other hand, perhaps social media performed its the most influential and striking task in Libya by delivering the world the Libyan leader Gaddafi’s killing by lynching (Tekek,2011, www.orsam.org). And Syria When it comes to Syria, in which Assad still has the support of the army and his government, it is the most stubborn Middle East country hit by the wave of revolt. Generally, in Syria mobile phones are used by rebels for spreading images associated with uprising. These images mostly contain the conflicts between the security forces and the opposition and ill-treatments used by security forces and Syria army in unknown places (Tekek,2011, www.orsam.org). On the other hand, as in other Arab countries, Syria is trying to limit the power of the social mediaAnti-regime protesters were recording the violence of Syrian army against public and sharing the videos on social network websites such as YouTube and Facebook. Assad regime, in order to prevent such actions of opponents, has banned all products of Apple, with iPhone being in the first place. The other smart phones are not included within the scope of ban (http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25302494/). In the meantime, during the period of the rebellion, country management uses the media as a tool of propaganda and counter-propaganda. Indeed, Bashar al-Assad has given statements to the Western press (American and British) and the Russian media .And also in a recent press conference by Syria’s foreign ministry, Foreign Affairs and Expatriates Minister Walid al-Moallem has shared images of some members of the security forces who died. These efforts are two examples of propaganda made ​​by Syria Management (Tekek, 2011, www. orsam.org). TRADITIONAL MEDIA AND SOCIAL MEDIA IN THE CONTEXT OF MODERN PROPAGANDA- DEMOCRACY In the early 20th century, America was becoming formally more democratic. A much more people were able to vote, the country was becoming wealthier, more people could participate and a lot

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of new immigrants were coming in, and so on. So it was becoming harder for American business community to run things as a private club. Therefore, they, very impressed with the propaganda effort at that time, had to control what people think. According to Edward Bernays, a important member of Creel Commission, the public mind can be regimented as much as an army regiments their bodies and these new techniques of regimentation of mind should be used by the intelligent minorities in order to make sure that the slobs stay on the right course. Bernay’s major success propelling him into fame in the late 1920s was to get women, who didn’t smoke in those days, to smoke for the campaigns for Chesterfield (Chomsky,1997). Bernays, in his famous book Propaganda, argued that the conscious and intelligent manipulation of habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society. Moreover, this manipulation of public opinion was a necessary part of democracy, according to him. Today, however, the media has assumed this ideological task Bernays argued.The mass media, and especially television, unquestionably plays an important role in the construction and reproduction of social reality.Media has changed and influenced the way we perceive and understand the world.It has imposed certain behaviors and ways of thinking on us through conveying messages. In television news, having a strong influence as a source of information, social construction of identity models and role stereotypes is carried out through giving the well-known identities / actors the right to represent (Kellner 2001: 204’. Karaduman,2007). The voice and participation of society in the media are restricted to certain persons and forms. Therefore, media limits the expression of our thoughts. These features in today’s media overlap with Marx’s words on the ideology. For Marx, the ways (to) the lower classes, i.e. the working classes understand their social experiences, social relations, and therefore themselves are constructed through the ideas which don’t belong to them. These ideas are the ideas of a class that is different from them in terms of economic and hence political and social interests and at the same time, is actively against them (Fiske, 2003; 221’.Kazancı,2006 ).

Today, the free-market has given rise to monopolization and concentration. Within this respect, pressures stemming from concentration in the field of media and media owners are a threat to pluralist democracy.As a result, the market-driven media, leads to decrease in power of democracy which is a forum (Uzun,2006). According to Chomsky (1997), there are also power relations within the media and the powerful media guides the other section of the media. ‘There is another sector of the media, the elite media, sometimes called the agenda-setting media because they are the ones with the big resources, they set the framework in which everyone else operates’ In particular in Post-Cold War military operations, the functioning style of the media has showed that how the media can frame the facts, how it can be used as propaganda tool, and to what extent it can be away from democracy. During this period, the global media moved ever further away from the idea of ​​free media while addressing the post-Cold War military operations. Almost, it continued its activities in the form of a propaganda bureau. In fact, we can talk about two types of war; the war with bombs and the war with information… Propaganda, manipulation and disinformation terms were renewed in information war. Televisions often devoted a lot of space to aid to Iraq by the United States, the interests of the children for American troops and coalition forces saying that the war is for the good of the Iraqi people. At this time, the Iraqi government carried out propaganda in their favor. For instance, Iraq media brought Iraq public greeting Saddam Hussein with displays of affection and his showing affection to a little child and caring attitudes into view to highlight his humanitarian aspects. When Iraq state television started broadcasting again after bombing, the most famous star of Iraq came out with a Kalashnikov rifle in his hand singing heroic songs with Saddam’s supporters to create impression that Iraq was still standing strong. Additionally, Saddam’s propaganda minister, with his cynical and self-assured stance, style and body lan-

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guage, became successful in strengthening the belief that the Iraqi government was still strong. Due to his style, he was even resembeled to Adolf Hitler’s famous public relations and propaganda minister Goebbels by Turkish media (İnceoğlu,2003).

Is that website reliable?

Social Media Against Democracy

Also, issues like uneven access, commercialization, the ruling forces’ request to control internet remove the democratic potential of the internet through macro overview. (Timisi,2003,p.30).

Along with new media technologies, information control in the hands of the minority has passed into the hands of the majority. There are a number of democratic aspects of this changeover. However, only by looking at the development and the democratic potential of the internet of today, can we determine easily whether or not it will be different from the mass media? To give the correct answer to this question or at least to make an inference on it, we should take an in-depth look and maybe we need a bit guessing. Internet hosts Important innovations that allow many activities peculiar to democracy such as to connect individuals with each other in the local and global groups,to create public awareness, to mobilize people and to ensure solidarity between them (Timisi,2003,p. 30). Besides these, in terms of reporting, quicker access to information and to have the initiative to access information etc. are positive developments. On the other side, the issues such as the freedom of the content, reliability of the resource and accuracy confuse both legislators and professionals and also users. In this interaction platform, the user is completely free, and subjectivity has come forward than ever, so to what extent do we actually seek objectivity, considered as sine qua non of democracy by liberal theorists, in such a subjective platform. In new media environment, viewers are exposed to information than ever (Şakı Aydın,2011,pp.117-118), and information reaches us without any filtering process. Considering that an ordinary citizen has limited reserve to watch/ read the daily news, which is inversely proportional to the time given the sheer number of news, then people will need a guidance to get the news they need. This raises a number of questions: From which website can users reach the news they need as quickly as possible? How to reach that website?

With the help of which website can users assess the accuracy of the news they have just get? (Uzun,2006).

While internet is so important as a platform that allows standing against the power of the traditional media, the voices of minorities and dissidents, at the same time it includes features that require asking the question; ‘What does it mean equality in the virtual world?’ There is no significance or effect of the statute in the virtual world. At this point, we have to seperate the status and power. Because the power exempts from the communicative environment. To have control over the computer communications means having control over information and expertise. That we can check or domain the information in computer environment does not effect the relations of domination in real world. In this sense, instead of seeing the internet as a stand-alone element of democratizing, it would be more appropriate to say that internet can refer to something in the name of democracy only in a general process of democratization (Timisi, 2003,pp.30–236). CONCLUSION In 2008 United States presidential election, when running his election campaign, Obama was calling out to America by ‘Change’.In fact, we have been used to the promises of ‘change’ of political parties’ propagandas. In political rallies, ‘change’ in many areas is promised to us all the time; change in health, change in human rights, change in economy, change in… etc. Actually, Obama did not promise something different to American people. Perhaps, the change might be hidden in his method of communication between the public and him. Now, the American people, and especially young people in America, rather than reading newspapers, they watch television, listen radio to be aware of the world. Instead, they have preferred the internet that incorporates all of these technologies. Obama therefore chose this platform to address

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young people who have an important potential to vote, of course by lending his ear to voices of them.

tunity-danger, freedom-security, subjectivity-objectivity, being subject-being object.

Following the announcement of the results of 2009 elections in Iran, in response to the sameness the Iranian people demanding change took to the streets. In spite of censorship, they was able to convey their own frameless news, as an alternative to the state-owned media news framed by ideologies, to the world.

Yes, the media power, having been in the hands of minority for a long time, is now in the hands of the majority. Positively, new media has authorized the majority to influence the powerful minority.

November 28, 2010 On Sunday night, a website called Wikileaks wanting to force ‘real change’ just in politicians, institutions, and companies claiming that they will change the world. In doing so, it has demanded information from us to uncover hidden facts of organizations and to remain strong in the face of system using ‘keep us strong’ slogan. All of these hadn’t given birth to concrete, significant changes yet, but they caused us to sense that something was changing or about to change. And this perception of change was turned into action by a burning man in a small country in the middle east from which we had never expected something related to change until that day. During the riots spreading from Tunisia to other Middle Eastern countries, people have used social media actively to communicate with each other on actions and to make news about events they have experienced or witnessed. Social media have taken the burden of news source both for those who want to be informed about the events and for traditional media which hasn’t able to show successful and timely reporting during the riots. These developments have opened the door for changes in traditional media journalism as well as political changes. News has found its place in a environment which contain mutually exclusive binaries such as oppor-

For now we don’t know whether social media contribute to the democratization process in this wave of uprisings around the Middle East. Sure enough, we will gradually get clear answer to this basic question in the course of time. But at this stage we can seek answers to some questions in the context of social media and the Arab revolts relationship: To what extent can social media as information-news type uncover the realities about these uprisings? We can watch conflicts in the streets, the exact moment people are shot; even we have watched the killing of the head of a state by being lynching. But why couldn’t we see anything about the young person who has symbolized the starting point of the rebellion by burning himself? Does FRENCH banner ‘Ali Dégage (Ben Ali Go!).’ carried by demonstrators say something about sociological background of events in Tunisia whose language Arabic? How will history remember the rebels? Will it remember them as soldiers who have choose their own battles freely as it appeared in popular song of 2010 World Cup saying ‘your’re a good soldier, choosing your battles’ Or will it remember them as a part of pre-conceived news story while this song was playing in background?

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Screen Based Communication and Surveillance Yrd. Doç. Dr. Cengiz Erdal Sakarya Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi [email protected] ABSTRACT Screen to screen communication causes to disappear the borders between people because of time and space enabling them to reach each other more frequently and easily through ICT devices such as tablets, laptops and new generation cellphones. Changing structure of conversation through screen to screen communication in virtual environments has caused a new concern of being under surveillance. As individuals wish to benefit more from screen to screen communication, more they share their private information inadvertently. Being under Surveillance is the nature of cyber-communication, in which social media companies easily find out usage habits and personal tendencies of their users’ as they require personal data from the users to utilize their sites as to become a part of virtual societies. The research question of this study is, do technological developments and the internet facilitate the surveillance of individuals utilizing cyberspace? In this study the new form of communication, which is screen to screen communication emerged in virtual environment, its benefits that users take advantage of will be examined and discussed in details. In the first part, emerging of screen to screen communication and the reasons why it has been embraced by users so quickly and changes that screen to screen communication has brought about to individuals’ lives will be examined and elaborated through examples. Following, concerns of being under surveillance through screen to screen communication will be argued through various examples. Keywords: Screen to screen communication, surveillance, virtual face to face, social media. 1. INTRODUCTION Communication tools cause and support evolving nature of societies. Therefore, patterns of communicating together with other fields change and develop constantly. Especially new media tools operate in cyberspace have formed a new communication structure apart from the known ones. In this new form of communication computers are used as tools to convey messages. The new screen based communication takes place in cyberspace that I call “screen to screen communication”, expands “face to face communication” and its facilities in time and space without having to be at the same time, at the same place bringing individuals together in the virtual venue. It provides kind of virtual face to face communication with the one/s we wish to communicate whenever both or more sides are online in social media tools, which is one of the most striking features of screen to screen communication that attracts more and more people to utilize it through ICT devices. Especially, mobile devices have taken new communication’s attractiveness to an upper level enabling users to stay in touch even while they are on the move,

which allows users to keep up with the fast flow of information in information age. It should be remembered that there is always cost of benefiting and/or taking the advantage of something free. In that sense, apart form the invoices of telecommunication companies that provide us with the internet which is the gateway of the endless features of cyber-communication, the real cost of screen to screen communication for the users seems to be incurred to surveillance whenever we are online either surfing on the web, checking in a place through networking websites and communicating with each other in social media environments. So, one of the most important things that is overseen by users as being either content creators or consumers of mass cyber-communication unlike traditional media is living marks behind while utilizing new media tools, through which our behavioral habits can be analyzed, the places we have been can be traced easily. 2. Information Age Information has become the most valuable asset in information age as its foundation like it has never been before for. What makes it so important is its

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tendency to become obsolete rapidly in the information age consequence of velocity in its movement and developments, which make its movement so easy. So whoever reaches the necessary information earlier overcomes their rivals and becomes able to process the information to create new information. Headrick emphasizes that information systems have started to change since 18th. and 19th. centuries in order to respect the difference emerged. It is fact that storing, multiplying, scattering and sharing of information have changed dramatically over the years. So, abundance, easy multiplying, delivering of information and doing those activities through computers internet can be accepted as important tools to delineate information society (Headrick, as cited in Yamaç, 2009:16-17). According to Massuda, in social and political terms, information societies would feature voluntary communities, participatory democracy, generalized affluence, equality and psychic well-being; the information society would be, a ‘Computopia’ in which a person could ‘paint one’s own design on the visible canvas of one’s future and then set out to create it (Massuda, as cited in Barney, 2006:7-8). Information society is not only the age in which internet are used widespread, communication systems and all IT networks to provide positive economic value, but it is an historical fraction which entwines all humans and societies and effects their value systems and cultures (Yamaç, 2009:17). Networks are thought to be playing vital roles in our lives in information age. They enable to connect individuals, organizations and all computers and most importantly the all information to each other throughout the world. Advent of social media tools has caused it to emerge attracting more and more people to become member, through which users exchange enormous amount of information with each other. According to Castells network is a set of interconnected nodes. A node is the point at which a curve intersects itself. What a node is depends on the kind of concrete networks of which we speak. They are stock exchange markets and their ancillary advanced services centers, in the network of global financial flows. They are national councils of ministers and European Commissioners in the political network that governs the European Union (Castells, 1998:470). Networks constitute the new social morphology of our societies and the diffusion of networking logic

substantially modifies the operation and outcomes in process of production, experience, power and culture. While the networking form of social organization has existed in other times and spaces, the new information technology paradigm provides the material basis for its pervasive expansion throughout the entire social structure. This networking logic induces a social determination of a higher level than that of the specific social interests expressed through the networks: the power of flows takes precedence over the flows of power in the global network of the new media at the roots of cultural expression and public opinion in the information age (Castells, 1998:469). Meeting with the internet started with wired hardware systems. Those wires enabled some information to be transferred from one point to another. Thus, information flow came to life. Wires also connected people to each other over the internet erasing borders and time differences. It can be said that it is the first phase of transition from industrial society to information society before moving to wireless society. Wireless access provided individuals with more freedom. As a result of wireless connections, necessity of being in an office or home as to go online disappeared. It is not going to be wrong to call wireless society as post-wired society as wireless society emerged from wired one. It is also a post-industrial society based on services established in cyberspace and can be reached through computers. As Bell says; ‘A post-industrial society is based on services … what counts is not raw muscle power or energy, but information’ (Bell, as cited in Barney, 2007:6). 3. SOCIAL NETWORKS and POLITICal ECONOMY OF Surveillance One of the most important assets of information age is data itself. Moving, storing and retrieving of data, through which information and knowledge are constituted, became very easy as a result of technological developments in the field of cybercommunication through ICT devices. Technology and communication companies like search engines and social media corporations are in the center of information traffic providing the internet users with hosting services through singing up and then becoming member of their web sites in order to utilize their web services’ facilities, through which they collect many data about their users’ private life and tendencies, which they sell to some third parties

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like research companies and advertisers. Considering one in every three person is an internet user, most of whom are members and/or using services of those virtual environments, through which the amount of information shared could be imagined. As users whatever we share utilizing social network sites are turned to revenue sources by free social networking providers. Gaining those information third party companies send us more specific adverts considering our interests. In other words, those companies become more successful on selling their products to us as consumers. According to Fuchs, gathering user data is Google’s economic strategy. Google as the most prominent and used search engine gather its users’ data who use Google applications in various daily situations. The Google’s intention is to become a problem solver for every one on any kind of situation. So, more people will be spend time on Google applications more Google will be able to create new applications which answer user needs. Having realize that Google will get more and more data becoming an indispensible problem solver for the users, through which comprehensive data about user tendencies and behaviors will be gained and sold to advertising clients (Fuchs, 2012). Like Google, ICT companies intend to share that valuable and private information with some other companies who are interested in finding out users’ tendencies as to reach as many target audience as they could to maximize their revenue. Users of those electronic communication environments, either knowing or without knowing, accept their information to be shared with third parties in becoming signed up to utilize free networking services. Enabling users to utilize their services, cybercommunication companies of research engine and social sharing assure users that they will do their best to take care of users’ privacy including their personal information, their sharing of thoughts pictures and places with their friends. Besides those companies constantly induce even entice their users to share more and more. For instance in Facebook once you wish to limit your privacy there is always a suggestion, explaining the consequences that you may face, to limit your limitation that you plan to do in your account. Searching around the privacy settings of Facebook you came across the company’s suggestion of “The more info you share, the more social the experience”. They would not dare to say that “The more information you share about yourself, the more social you are”. It would have revealed their real intention of pushing users too hard to share. New users’ privacy settings of

most of the networking and social sharing companies’ set to share almost everything. In Facebook those are the information accessible when we sign up: Bio, birthday, family and relationship, my website, If I’m online, My status updates, my photos, my videos, my links, my notes, hometown, current city, education and work, activities, interests, things I like, my application activity. The only ones that are opted out are: Interested in and religious and political views. Unless users go and change the settings they start sharing as soon as they become members to those websites. Moreover, adjusting privacy settings is not as easy as it seems. There is an explanation on the page, but it takes more than basic computer knowledge to figure out and put into practice those privacy changes. Under application settings it is most probably that you find many applications that you do not even familiar with, most of which interact with our Facebook accounts. It means that those applications are able to know whatever we do. When we check them, we see that each of the applications has been given certain rights like, accessing basic information, sending us an e-mail, accessing profile information, accessing our content, accessing profile information people share with us, sending us push notifications, accessing content people share with us, posting on our behalf, accessing our contact information, accessing our friends’ contact information, accessing our data anytime, accessing posts in our news feed, accessing our Facebook Chat and choice of who can see the posts this application makes for our Facebook timeline. Apple’s privacy policy could be another example of how and under which circumstances our information is used and shared with third parties. ID information is called private information for Apple Corporation. In the first line they say that reading their privacy policy will acknowledge us about how they share our information. Apparently, Apple shares its users’ private information with its business partners as to get new products developed. Aforementioned information can also be consolidated with other information. Besides, content that we share using any Apple applications can be collected. In U.S. under certain consequences like set up a wire lees account, while activating an I-phone or in the process of extension of credit due date, even Social Security Number of the users can be requested. Apple also collects, use, transfer, and disclose nonpersonal information for any purpose. Apple can

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collect unique device identifier, location, and the time zone where an Apple product is used. Aggregated data is considered non-personal information according to the company’s Privacy Policy. Apple and its partners use cookies and other technologies in mobile advertising services to control the number of times we see a given ad, deliver ads that relate to our interests, and measure the effectiveness of ad campaigns. Apple warns that If we do not want to receive ads with this level of relevance on our mobile device, we can opt out by accessing a link (http://oo.apple.com.) on our device: If we opt out, we will continue to receive the same number of mobile ads, but they may be less relevant because they will not be based on our interests. This opt-out applies only to Apple advertising services and does not affect interest-based advertising from other advertising networks. Apple shares personal information with companies who provide services such as information processing, extending credit, fulfilling customer orders, delivering products to us, managing and enhancing customer data, providing customer service, assessing our interest in their products and services, and conducting customer research or satisfaction surveys. Apple asserts that these companies are obligated to protect our information and may be located wherever Apple operates. Apple may also disclose information about its users if they determine that disclosure is reasonably necessary to enforce their terms and conditions or protect their operations or users. Additionally, in the event of a reorganization, merger or sale Apple may transfer any and all personal information they collect to the relevant third party. To provide location-based services on Apple products, Apple and their partners and licensees may collect, use, and share precise location data, including the real-time geographic location of our Apple computer or device.

third parties, which I do not think most of the users do not bother. According to Apple, Privacy Policy might be updated from time to time (Apple, 2012). The information of users that those companies share with third parties like advertisers and/or analysts include status updates, pictures, places we have been, how often we go those places, how often and how long we stay online utilizing those companies facilities and applications, groups that we are member of. Users waive their privacy in return to have free hosting as to be a part of virtual societies sharing daily developments in their lives and contacting with their friends at all times in the new form of being social which I call “contemporary socialization” or “post-modern socialization”. 4. CONCLUSION Velocity in technological developments have effected and developed communication dramatically considering the communication tools a few decades ago. Development in communication started with personal computers, internet, laptops, notebooks, mobile devices and then the wireless internet which have caused to change the way individuals communicate. As a result of social media tools, through which constant communication and instant sharing are possible, communication penetrated individuals’ lives more than ever before. Most striking features of cyber-communication are to participate all the developments around us and commend on the news published on online newspapers making our voice to be heard and even being able to communicate with governments easily through ICT devices. In spite of all the easiness that cyber communication brought into our lives, its disadvantage in terms of being traced can be thought to be the cost we have to pay. More we use social media tools and cyberspace services and/or products, more we waive and/or quit our privacies, which are used as revenue sources by those environments’ providers.

Apple websites, products, applications, and services may contain links to third-party websites, products, and services. Their products and services may also use or offer products or services from third parties − for example, a third-party iPhone app. Information collected by third parties, which may include such things as location data or contact details, is governed by their privacy practices. Apple encourages us to learn about the privacy practices of those

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The Communicative Force Of Social Media In The Electronic Age: The Activist Soul Of The Social Media Doç. Dr. Ayşen TEMEL EGİNLİ Ege Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Halkla İlişkiler ve Tanıtım Bölümü [email protected] Doç.Dr. Sinem YEYGEL ÇAKIR Ege Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Reklamcılık Bölümü [email protected] ABSTRACT Nowadays, in the communication era based on the technology, the activist groups that are trying to attract attention to some particular social events and create change by developing action plans, have become aware of the reality that they must exist not only in the real world but also the digital world. This condition has brought the concept of the digital activism together with itself, too. Social media and web sites focused on users, which are shaped under the influence of the Web 2.0 in the digital activism are the social communication net in which many people are connected to each other socially and activate themselves by affecting each other for activist groups. People build relationships and continue it by means of those nets. In this manner, activist actions are carrying their efforts in creating change and awareness to the social media in many facts interesting society like social policy, economy and culture and want to reach their targets by providing share. In this study, activist social media conditions which are working for getting support are examined and in the result of the study, those social media conditions’ success is evaluated. GİRİŞ Sosyal medya olgusunun bilgi iletişim teknolojileri odaklı iletişim sürecinde kazandığı önem, sadece teknoloji temelli kişilerarası iletişim ya da pazarlama iletişimi süreçlerinde değil, belli amaçlar için bir araya gelmiş ve ortak bir hedefe ulaşmak için çabalayan grupların kendi içlerinde ve birbirleriyle olan iletişimlerinin gerçekleşmesinde de kendini göstermektedir. Wikiler, sosyal ağ siteleri, içerik paylaşım siteleri ve bloglar gibi sosyal medya araçları, internetin doğasından kaynaklanan eş zamanlı, hızlı, sınır tanımayan bilgi yayılımına olanak sunan yapısına ek olarak, Web 2.0 teknolojisinin de sunduğu avantajla, kullanıcı merkezli bir yapı göstermektedir. Sosyal ağ siteleri bir web tabanlı servis sağlayıcı olarak bireylere; belirli bir sistem sınırı içinde kamusal ya da yarı kamusal bir yapı sağlama, diğer kullanıcılar ile bağlantı kuracakları ve düşüncelerini rahatça ifade edebilecekleri alanlar sunma, sistem içinde diğerleri tarafından oluşturulmuş ve bağlantı kurulacak kişilerin isimlerini içeren listeleri inceleme fırsatı vermektedir. Sosyal ağ sitelerinin temel teknik

özellikleri, kullanıcıların kişisel profillerini oluşturmaları ve sosyal ağa bağlı üyelerin kimliğini ortaya koyan arkadaş listelerinin kontrol edilmiş hallerinin sistemde bulunmasını içermektedir. Bu teknoloji sosyal ağlar içinde yer alan bireylerin yüz yüze iletişimden kaynaklanan ilişkilerini kuvvetlendirmekle kalmaz aynı zamanda da tümüyle yabancı olarak nitelendirilebilecek kişilerle yeni ilişkiler geliştirilmesini de sağlar (Lu 2011: 51). Bu süreçte sosyal medyanın sunduğu avantajlar sosyal, politik, ekonomik ya da kültürel anlamda toplumsal yapının genelini ilgilendiren konularda yaşanan bir takım haksızlık, ayrımcılık ya da suiistimallere dikkat çekmek, farkındalık yaratarak bir takım davranışsal değişimler meydana getirmek için harekete geçen aktivist grupların da dikkatini çekmektedir. Kısa sürede, çok sayıda insana, herhangi bir zaman ve mekan sınırı olmadan ulaşmak, fikirlerini öğrenmek ve belli bir konu hakkında bir kamuoyu yaratmak çabası içinde olan aktivistler için internet ve özellikle sosyal medya, paha biçilemez bir iletişim ve etkileşim ortamı olarak varlığını göstermektedir.

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DİJİTAL AKTİVİZM, WEB SİTELERİ VE SOSYAL AĞLAR Aktivizm terimi 1970’lerin ortalarında ortaya atılmış kısmen yeni bir kavram olarak değerlendirilebilir. Kavram en basit biçimiyle, tarihi yaratmak ya da değiştirmek ve harekete geçmek gücü olarak tanımlanmaktaydı. Genç bir aktivist olan Gitlin’e göre ‘kavram bize dünyanın sadece bu olmadığını, değiştirilebileceği ya da biçimlendirilebileceğini hatırlatmaktadır.’ Aktivizm teorik olarak sosyal değişim teorisi, toplumsal hareket (sivil hareket) teorisi ile direniş, savunma ya da protesto gibi kavramları da belli bir düzeyde içermektedir. Bu noktada aktivizmin kesin olmayan birçok tanımı ile karşılaşmak mümkündür. Bu tanımlardan birine göre aktivizm, toplumların geleceklerinin oluşturulmasıdır. Bu bakış açısından aktivizm, değişim için mücadelenin pratiklerini, yenilikçi ve ilerlemeci olduğu kadar tutucu eğilim ve amaçlar tarafından da ortaya çıkartabilir (Cammaerts, 2007: 217). Aktivizmin temel alt yapılarından biri olarak toplumsal hareket (sivil hareket) teorisi (social movemnet theory), potansiyel sosyal, kültürel ve politik sonuçlar kadar bunların hangi biçimlerde ortaya çıktığı, sosyal hareketliliğin neden meydana geldiğini açıklamaya çalışan sosyal bilimlerle ilgili interdisipliner bir çalışmadır (http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_move ment_theory). Toplumsal hareket teorisi temelde, birbiriyle ilişki içinde olan ortak ilgi alanları içindeki gruplardaki bireyler için faydalar elde etmek, sosyal reformlar üretmek ve toplumun oluşturulmuş yapısına erişmeyi reddetmeyi içermektedir (http://stmarys. ca/~evanderveen/wvdv/social_change/social_movement_theories. htm). Dijital (online) aktivizm; bilgi iletişim teknolojilerinin hızlı ve geniş kapsamlı iletişimleri sağlamak, bilgiyi yaymak, toplanan yardımları arttırmak ve/veya toplumsal olaylar için destekleri harekete geçirmek ve koordine etmek için toplumsal hareketlerin yaratılması amacıyla kullanımıdır (Kvansay ve ark., 2009: 17). Dijital aktivizm ile geniş kitlelere ulaşması istenen bir dijital eylem sürdürülebilir, etkili ve çoğaltılabilir olma niteliklerini barındırmalı ve bu nitelikler eylem süresince gözden geçirilerek sürekli iyileştirilmelidir. Sürdürülebilir bir eylem yerelliğini koruyabilmeli, düşük maliyetli olmalı, pekişmeye ve birikmeye açık tasarlanmalıdır. Uzun vadeli stratejiler oluşturulması ve uygun teknoloji kullanımı bir eylemin etkililiğinde en önemli unsurlardır. Dijital eylemlerin değiştirici ve uyarıcı etkisi, çoğaltılabilirliği ve üreme yetenekleriyle güç bulur. Bir dijital ey-

lem diğer insanlara, diğer toplum ya da topluluklara ve diğer meselelere eklemlenebilme yetenekleriyle katkısını pekiştirecektir” (Pişkin, http://inet-tr.org. tr/inetconf15/bildiri/50. pdf, s: 1). Görüldüğü gibi sosyal medya gibi araçlar “kamusal ifadenin önündeki eski engelleri ve böylece kitlesel medyanın simgeleri olan darboğazları ortadan kaldırmaktadır. Sonuçta, daha önce medya profesyonellerine özgü alanlar, kitlesel olarak amatörleşmektedir” (Shirky, 2010: 53). Günümüzde halk sağlığı, politik huzursuzluklar, afetler ve iklim değişimleri gibi ulusal ve uluslararası çözümlenmesi gereken öncelikli sorunların görünürlüğü artmaktadır. Bu durum sosyal medya yoluyla toplumsal aktivizmden bir takım faydalar elde etme düşüncesini de su yüzüne çıkarmaktadır. Bu güçlü toplumsal sorunlar, toplumsal katılıma aracılık eden teknolojik gelişmelerin izlenmesi ve araştırılmasını beraberinde getirmiştir (Rotman ve ark., http://delivery. acm.org/10.1145/1980000/1979543/p819rotman. pdf?ip=155.223.100.25CFID=36217971&CFTOK EN=88808083&__acm__=1311325483_765e0 564e7182dcebf1591a81ad0957b, 2001: 1). Denning’e (2001) göre ise dijital (online) aktivizm, kamuoyunu ilgilendiren bir gündem ya da olayı desteklemek için internetin normal, yıkıcı olmayan kullanımı olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Aktivist hareketler; bilgi için internetin taranması, aktivist nitelikli inşa edilen web siteleri üzerinden gerekli materyallerin dağıtılması, elektronik yayınlar ve mektupların e-posta yoluyla gönderilmesi, aktivist grupların birlikte hareket edeceği alanların yaratılması ve aktivitelerin koordine edilmesi için internetin kullanımını içermektedir. Denning online aktivizmin kavramsal olarak çatısını kuran 5 temel model ortaya koymaktadır. Söz konusu bu modeller aşağıdaki gibi sıralanabilir (Kvansay ve ark., 2009: 4-5): • Koleksiyon Modeli: İhtiyaç duyanlara sosyal yardım sağlamak, üyelik ve bir amaç için maddi yardım toplamak, organizasyon yapmak ve bir davanın savunulması gibi aktiviteler için internetin etkin kullanımının yanı sıra toplumsal olaylara dayanan bilgilerin toplandığı geniş bir dijital kütüphane olarak değerlendirilebilir. • Yayımlama: İnternet aynı zamanda aktivist amaçlı hareket eden kullanıcıların misyon ve eylem amaçlarını ortaya koymak için yayımlama amaçlı olarak da kullanılabilmektedir.

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• Diyalog: İnternet, belli bir konuyla ilgili halka açık ya da özel diyaloglar için sosyal alanlar olarak da hizmet vermektedir. Diyalog; söz konusu sorunla ilgili son gelişmeleri yorumlamak ve tartışmak, diğerlerinin eylemlerini etkilemek ya da sorulara cevap vermek için kullanılabilir. • Eylemin Koordinasyonu: İnternet; grubu harekete geçirecek eylem planlarının iletilmesi, zamanlamanın ayarlanması ve koordine edilmesi, eyleme yönelik alternatifler arasından seçim yapmayı içeren karar alma süreçlerinin koordine edilmesine yardım etmektedir. • Karar Vericilere Yönelik Lobi Çalışmaları Yapmak: İnternet belirli konularda karar verici konumunda olan otoritelerin düşüncelerini ve eylemlerini etkilemek amacıyla iletişim kurulan ve lobi faaliyetlerinin başlatıldığı alanları da oluşturmaktadır. Online imza toplamak, daha güçlü grupların eylemlerine karşı protesto geliştirmek için kullanılmaktadır. İletişim konusunda çalışmaları bulunan Micheal Dobbs’a göre, “Facebook ve Twitter gibi sosyal medya siteleri aktivizmin kurallarını büyük oranda değiştirmişlerdir. Şüphesiz ki, internet ve sosyal medya aktivist hareketlerin insanlara ulaşmasında önemli bir rol üstlenmektedir. Çünkü insanlar sosyal ağ siteleri aracılığıyla aktivist hareketleri başlatmakta, bu hareketlerden haberdar olmakta ve sürece dahil olabilmektedirler. İnternet kısa sürede aktivist amaçların yerine getirilmesi için bireylere yardımcı olmaktadır. Daha sonraki adımda ise çevrimiçi kaynaklar küresel farkındalığı arttırmak adına aktivistlere uzun dönemde yardımcı olmaktadır. İnternet, aktivistlerin dışarıdaki dünya ile iletişim kurmalarını kolaylaştıran bir yapı göstermektedir (Buccilli, 2011). Daha çok sosyal ağlar üzerinde yapılandırılan dijital aktivizm, sivil toplumun yaşam gücüne katkıda bulunmaktadır. Sivil toplum yoluyla, hükümet ve diğer güçlü kurumlar tarafından gücün kötüye kullanılmasına engel olacak aracı kurumların düzeyi tanımlanır ve bu şekilde toplumda sorun yaratan problemlerin çözümlenmesi için toplumun kapasitesi yükseltilmiş olur. Bu noktada aracı kurum olarak değerlendirilebilecek olan meslek odaları, çalışma birlikleri, sivil toplum örgütleri paydaş niteliğindeki kurumlar, aktivist hareketlerin planlanması ve yürütülmesinde etkin roller üstlenirler. İşletmelerin ve hükümetlerin davranışlarını gözlemlerler, gücün kötüye kullanılması durumunda karşı stratejiler geliş-

tirirler, kendi üyeleri ve genel kamuoyunda gerekli durumlarda ortak bir hareket planı ve eylem bütünlüğü sağlarlar. Özetle dijital aktivizm, gözlemleme, müzakere, hareketlilik ve etkili değişim için yeni bir platform sağlamıştır (Jacobs, 2005: 68-69). Aktivist gruplar genellikle küçük bir grup olarak bir konuya bağlı oluşmakta, ancak kartopu etkisi ile büyüyerek çok büyük bir güce ulaşmaktadır. Bu anlamda aktivist grupların amaçlarını ve faaliyetlerini geniş kitlelere iletebilmesinde en önemli silahları medyadır. Hedef kitlesinde farkındalık yaratmak için konu ile ilgili pozitif ve negatif düşünceleri, duyguları, olayları aktarmak durumundadır. Konu ile ilgili hangi tarafta yer aldığı ve buna ilişkin argümanlarını da doğru şekilde yapılandırmalıdır. Buna ilişkin olarak bir aktivist grup bilgisel aktiviteler, sembolik aktiviteler (boykot gibi), örgütlenme aktiviteleri ve sosyal ağlar, yasal aktiviteler, sivil aktiviteler olmak üzere beş ayrı kategoride stratejik yaklaşım sergileyebilmektedir (Mazzini, 2004: 8-12). Bu stratejilerini gerçekleştirebilmeleri için öncelikle amaçlarını, misyonlarını ve vizyonlarını belirleyerek kitlelere ulaşabilecekleri bir ortama ihtiyaç duymaktadırlar. Günümüzde aktivist grupların kendilerini en iyi şekilde ifade etmelerine olanak tanıyan ortam web siteleri ve sosyal ağlardır. Sosyal ağlar üzerinden kurulan iletişim son yıllarda artan bir şekilde popülerlik göstermektedir. Bu anlamda sosyal ağlar aktivist grupların da hedef kitleleri ile iletişime geçebildikleri ve gerçekleştirmek istedikleri faaliyetleri duyurabildikleri alanlar olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Bu sosyal ağlar kişiler için fiziksel bir yere bağlı olmaksızın arkadaşlık ve iletişim kurma imkânı tanımaktadır. Söz konusu sosyal ağlara üye olan kişilere bu ortamlar yüz yüze iletişimin verdiği olanakların tamamını tanımaktadır. Medya kullanımına ilişkin teorilerden biri olan sosyal bilgiyi işleme teorisi (social information processing theory), sosyal ağların kullanımının kişilerin kişilerarası iletişim kurmak üzere gerçekleştirdiği bir seçim olduğuna dayanmaktadır. Bir gruba ait olma duygusunun sanal bir ortam üzerinden paylaşımı, çok sayıda kişi ile iletişim olanağı yaratma niteliği ile pekiştirici olmasıdır. Teori, medya seçiminin sosyal etki yaratmasına dayanmaktadır. Diğer medya teorilerinden farklı olarak kişilerin tüm süreçlerde uyumlu ve isteyerek hareket etmesini içermektedir (http://www. marietruman.com/portfolio/13-interpersonalcommunication.html?start=1).

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Aktivist gruplar olayları yorumlayarak değişim, fırsatlar ve tehditleri göstermekte konu ile ilgili olan hedef kitlelerin daha geniş bilgilere ulaşması, konu ile henüz ilgisi olmayan kitlelerin dikkatinin çekilmesi ve anlayış yaratılmasına yönelik sosyal ağlar yaratma çabası bulunmaktadır. Bu noktada aktivist grup ya da organizasyonun çevresi ile kurduğu iletişim önem kazanmaktadır. Aktivist gruplar hedef kitlelerinin konu ile ilgili değerlerinin, duygularının bir anlamda taşıyıcısı oldukları için doğru iletişim kurmaları oldukça önemlidir. Bu anlamda online iletişim ve bunun en önemli araçlarından biri olan sosyal ağlar aktivist gruplara farklı alternatifler sunmaktadır. Sosyal ağlar aracılığı ile katılımcı ve karşılıklı etkileşime olanak sunan bir ortam yaratılabilmektedir. Sosyal ağlar karşılıklı diyalog kurularak büyüyen bir kitlenin yaratılmasında oldukça etkindir. Sosyal ağ üyeleri konu ile ilgili sorular sorabilmekte yanıtlar alabilmekte ve buna ilişkin olarak birbirlerini yönlendirebilmektedir. Kişilerarası iletişim açısından oldukça büyük önem taşıyan ilişkilerin ortak ilgilere ve güvene dayanması, etkileşimler sonucunda anlayış yaratılması, ödüllendirici nitelik taşıması diyalaloga dayalı iletişim ile mümkündür. Diyaloga dayalı iletişim (Diyalogic communication), karşıdaki kişinin ya da kişilerin katılımına olanak sağlayan hatta katılımı sağlamaya dayanan iletişim biçimidir. Hedef kitlenin katılımı amaçların gerçekleştirilmesinde birlik ve beraberlik duygusunun yaratılması açısından oldukça büyük önem taşımaktadır. Diyalog yoluyla hedef kitle ile birlikte yaratılan işbirliği ve teşvik edici bir ruh, amaçlara ulaşılmasında başarı sağlamakta ve diğer yandan anlaşmazlığa dayalı olarak yaşanabilecek çatışmaları en aza indirmektedir. Bununla birlikte diyaloga dayalı iletişim bir konunun farklı yönlerinin ortaya konmasında ve farklı fikirlerin ifade edilerek bir noktada uzlaşılmasında da etkili olabilmektedir. Diğer yandan diyalog yaratmak, kişilerin çatışma yaratmadan katılmadıkları ya da onaylamadıkları durumları ifade etmelerine olanak sağlamakta, bu da eleştirel düşünebilme, farklı açılardan yaklaşabilme kolaylığı sağlamaktadır. Aktivist grupların yoğunluklu olarak kullandıkları diyaloga dayalı iletişim tarafların birbirlerini dinlemelerine olanak sağladığı için açık ve dürüst bilgilerin paylaşımını mümkün kılmakta bu durum da istenilen etkin çözümün bulunmasında uzlaşmacı bir tutum geliştirilmesini sağlamaktadır (Mazzini, 2004: 35). Monologa dayalı iletişim ise genellikle taraflardan birinin gücünü güçlü bir şekilde hissedilir kılan, bununla birlikte diğer kişinin düşüncelerini ya da duygularını değiştirmeye bir anlamda ikna etmeye da-

yalı bir iletişim biçmidir. Bu nedenle de genel anlamda iletişim etkin olarak gerçekleşmemektedir. Diyaloga dayalı iletişimde ise taraflar karşılıklı olarak iletişim kurmakta, taraflardan hiç biri diğeri üzerinde etkinlik sağlamayı amaçlamamakta, kişiler kendi kişiliklerini ve değerlerini koruyarak, karşı taraf üzerinde hiçbir manipülatif etki yaratmaksızın pozitif bir paylaşım oluşturmaktadır. Bu anlamda diyaloga dayalı iletişim, yardımcı, etkin, kolaylaştırıcı ve teşvik edici bir nitelik taşımaktadır. Aynı zamanda taraflar diyalogun her aşamasında birbirlerinin ifadelerine güvenerek açıklamalarda bulunabilmektedirler (Beatty, 2001:228). ARAŞTIRMA Araştırma metodu ve örneklemi Araştırmanın temel amacı aktivist web sitelerinin diyaloga dayalı iletişimi kullanıp kullanmadığı ve eğer kullanıyorsa hangi iletişim araçlarına odaklandığını ortaya koymaktadır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda “Aktivist web siteleri diyaloga dayalı iletişimi kullanıyor mu? ve aktivist web siteleri diyaloga dayalı iletişim araçlarından hangilerini yoğun olarak kullanmaktadır?” sorularına yanıt aranmaktadır. Araştırma kapsamına alınan aktivist web siteleri, Dünya Bankası’nın web sitesinde yer alan Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları dahilindeki 33 aktivist nitelikli sivil toplum kuruluşunun web sitesinden oluşmaktadır. Araştırmanın sınırlılıkları kapsamında belirtilen nedenlerden dolayı 33 web sitesinin incelenmesinin sonucunda 27 adet web sitesinin geçerli bilgilere sahip olduğu görülerek araştırma kapsamına alınmıştır. Araştırmanın metodolojisi açısından içerik analizi kullanılmış ve aktivist web sitelerinin diyaloga dayalı iletişimi diyolog araçları (ancillary dialogic tools) ve karşılıklı diyolog araçları (dialogic Exchange) açısından iki düzeyde değerlendirilmiştir. İçerik analizinin gerçekleştirilmesinde Kent ve Taylor’ın (1998) web sitelerinin diyaloga dayalı iletişime odaklanan çalışması örnek alınmış, Taylor, Kent ve White (2001) tarafından geliştirilen web sitelerinin diyalog yeteneğini değerlendirdiği çalışması temelinde araştırma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu çalışma diyaloga dayalı iletişimde 16 temel iletişim aracına odaklanmaktadır. Bu 16 temel araç kendi içerisinde iki temel grupta değerlendirilmektedir. Birincisi diyolog araçları (ancillary dialogic tools), iletişim sürecinde karşıdaki kişinin iletişim ihtiyacını karşılaması, yakınlık duygusunu ve aidiyet duygusunu hissetmesine odaklanmaktadır. İkincisi ise karşılıklı diyolog araçları (dialogic exchange) daha

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derinlemesine bir iletişimin kurulması temelinde kişisel yanıtların verilmesi ve istenilen bilgiye yanıt alınmasına odaklanmaktadır. Ayrıca araştırmada dikkat edilen diğer bir nokta da kaç tane klik/ tıklama ile istenilen araçlara ulaşıldığıdır. Bu daha az tıklama ile istenilen bilgilere ulaşılması web sitesinin etkinliğini gösterirken, çok sayıda tıklama ile ulaşılması web sitesinin etkinliğini azaltan bir nitelik taşımaktadır. Araştırmanın çerçevesinde Birinci düzeyde menüler (directory), sıkça sorulan sorular (fact sheet/ FAQ), kısa anketler (quiz/polls/surveys), indirilebilir belgeler (media), ziyaretçi defteri (guest book), e-bülten (e-newsletters), hakkımızda (about us/ company information), haber odası (news room), güncel olaylar (current events) ve aktiviteler (happenings) yer almaktadır. Dizin/Menü (Directory), organizasyondaki görevleri, bölümleri, faaliyetleri bir diğer ifade ile web sitesi aracılığı ile hangi bilgiler edinebileceğini gösteren butonlardan ya da noktalardan oluşur. Sıkça sorulan sorular (fact sheet/FAQ), ise, web sitesine ulaşan kişilerin genel olarak bilmek istediği sorulardan hareketle hazırlanan soru ve bu sorulara yanıtların verilmesini ifade etmektedir. Araştırma/ kısa anket olarak yer alan bölümde aktivist web sitesinin katılımcılara ya da siteyi ziyaret eden kişilere yönelik belirli konular hakkında görüşlerini ve önerilerini öğrenmek amacı ile uyguladığı anketler ya da küçük soru bölümlerini açıklamaktadır. Medya ile ilgili bölüm ise e-bülten olup olmadığı ve indirilebilen belgelerin, raporların bulunmasını açıklamaktadır. Ziyaretçi defteri, siteyi ziyaret edenlerin site ile ilgili görüşlerini ya da konular ile ilgili önerilerini belirtmelerini ifade eden bir bölümün bulunmasıdır. Hakkımızda bölümü, aktivist hareketi gerçekleştiren organizasyonun tarihçesi, kuruluş hikayesi, amaçları, hedefleri, faaliyetleri hakkında bilgi verilen bölümdür. Basın/haber odası, organizasyonun geçmişten günümüze değin basında yer alan haberlerinin bulunabildiği bir arşivi ifade etmektedir. Güncel olaylar, aktivist grubun destek verdiği konu ve faaliyetlerin gösterilmesini ifade etmektedir. Aktiviteler ise aktivist grubun gerçekleştirdiği ve gerçekleştirmesi planlanan faaliyetleri ifade etmektedir.

on list) aktivist organizasyonda yer alan görevli kişilerin mail adresleri ve web sitesini ziyaret edenlerin faaliyetlerle ilgili iletişim kuracağı bir e-posta adresini ifade etmektedir. Sohbet odası (chat room), üyelerin ya da üye olmak isteyenlerin belirli bir konuda fikir alışverişinde bulunmasını sağlayan sanal ortamdır. Mesaj tahtası (Bulletin/Message Board), geçmişteki faaliyetler ile ilgili kişilerin yorumlarını paylaştıkları alandır. Geribildirim/Yorumlar (Feedback/ Comments), üyelerin ya da web sitesini ziyaret edenlerin doğrudan ilgili kişiye geribildirim verdiği ya da bir bölümde geribildirimlerin toplanmasını ifade etmektedir. Üyelik merkezi (Member Center), genellikle ana sayfada yer alan ziyaretçilerin siteye giriş yaparak ayrıntılı bilgilere ulaşmasını ya da tüm alanlara erişimini sağlayan bölümdür. Daha fazla bilgi (Reguest information), üyelerin ya da siteyi ziyaret edenlerin ilgilerini çeken konular hakkında daha fazla bilgi isteyebileceği bölümü ifade etmektedir. İletişim (Contact Us), aktivist grup faaliyetleri ile ilgili herhangi bir konuda kime ya da hangi birime ulaşılacağına ilişkin bilginin bulunmasını açıklamaktadır. Ayrıca sosyal medyanın gelişimi ile ilgili olarak web sitesinden diğer sosyal medya ortamlarına bağlantının olup olmadığını değerlendirmek amacıyla sosyal medya, blog ve tartışma grupları seçenekleri de araştırma kapsamına alınmıştır. Etkileşim araçlarına dahil edilen blog ve sosyal medya da günümüzdeki etkileşimli iletişim ortamının bir göstergesi olarak sayılmaktadır. Bu anlamda web sitesinde blog için bir bağlantının olması karşılıklı olarak bilgilerin paylaşılmasını sağlaması açısından önemlidir. Diğer yandan web sitesinde sosyal medyaya ilişkin ikonların bulunması ve bu ikonlara tıklama ile sosyal medya ortamlarına bağlantının bulunması üyelerin ve ziyaretçilerin diğer iletişim ortamlarını da takip etmeleri açısından kolaylık sağlamaktadır. Diyaloga dayalı iletişim araçlarından her biri üyelere ve web sitesi ziyaretçilerine bilgiler iletmektedir. Ancak bu bilgilerin daha önceden hazırlanan bilgilere dayandığı ve otomatik bir tepki olarak değerlendirilmesi söz konusudur. Etkileşim araçlarına bakıldığında ise, bu araçların kişiler arasında etkileşimli ve karşılıklı bir iletişimi mümkün kıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Araştırmanın Sınırlılıkları

İkinci düzeyde karışıklı diyolog araçları (diological exchange) yer almaktadır. Bunlar e-posta, tartışma grupları, sohbet odası, mesaj tahtası, geribildirim/yorumlar, üyelik, daha fazla bilgi, iletişim, blog, sosyal medya olarak ifade edilebilir. E-posta bilgisi (e-mail- discussi-

Araştırma kapsamına dahil edilen 33 web sitesinden (bkz.ek.1) 5 tanesi sitelere yönelik içerik analizinin gerçekleştirildiği dönemde sayfadan kaynaklanan nedeni bilinmeyen bir teknik sorun nedeniyle

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incelenememiştir. Bu sınırlılığın yanı sıra incelenen web sitelerinin 1 tanesinde ise İngilizceye çeviri bulunmadığı için site inceleme kapsamına alınamamıştır. Bu bağlamda araştırma kapsamında 27 aktivist nitelikli web sitesi incelenmiştir. Araştırmanın Sonuçları Aktivist grupların web sitelerinin aktivist hareketlerin gerçekleştirilmesinde hızlandırıcı, dikkat çekici, diyalog sağlayıcı nitelikleri dikkate alınarak aktivist grupların web sitelerinde diyaloga dayalı iletişimi ne şekilde kullandıkları ve hangi araçları etkin kullandıklarını belirlemeye yönelik gerçekleştirilen araştırmada, diyalog ve etkileşim araçları aracılığı

ile örneklem dahiline alınan web siteleri diyaloga dayalı araçlar ve etkileşim araçları kategorilerinde incelenmiştir. Diyaloga dayalı araçlar üyelerin ya da ziyaretçilerin bilgi edinmelerini sağlayarak, etkileşim kurmaya yönlendirici bir nitelik taşımaktadır. Etkileşim araçları ise bilgi edinilen organizasyon ile doğrudan iletişim kurmayı sağlamaktadır. Diyaloga dayalı araçlar, aktivist organizasyonun kendini ifade etmesinde ve gerekli desteğin elde edilmesi için giriş noktasını oluşturmakta ve bu anlamda aktivist organizasyonun başarılı olabilmesi için temel teşkil etmektedir. Günümüzde aktivist hareketlerin başarısı web sitesinin üyeleri ve ziyaretçileri ile iletişim kurabilme gücüne bağlıdır.

Tablo 1: Aktivist web sitelerinin diyaloga dayalı iletişim ve etkileşim araçları Web

Ana Sayfa

1 tıklama

2 tıklama

3 tıklama

TOPLAM

Düzey 1 / Diyalog Araçları Dizin/menü

24

-

-

-

24

Misyon

2

15

1

-

18

Sıkça Sorulan Sorular

2

4

-

-

6

E- Bülten

5

13

1

-

19

Kısa anket

-

1

-

-

1

Medya (indirilebilen belgeler)

9

6

6

-

21

Ziyaretçi Defteri

-

-

-

-

0

Hakkımızda

10

11

1

-

22

Basın/Haber Odası

21

1

-

-

22

Güncel Olaylar

12

5

1

-

18

Aktiviteler

4

9

1

-

14

5

10

2

1

18

Sohbet odası

-

1

-

-

1

Bülten/Mesaj Tahtası

1

3

1

-

5

Geribildirim/Yorumlar

1

11

3

1

16

Üyelik

9

8

1

4

22

Daha fazla bilgi

16

3

-

-

19

İletişim

7

12

1

-

20

Blog

5

8

2

-

15

Sosyal medya

11

10

-

-

21

Düzey 2 /Etkileşim Araçları e-posta listesi/ tartışma grupları

27 tane aktivist web sitesinin incelenmesi sonucunda birinci düzey olan diyaloga dayalı iletişim araçları içerisinde dizin/menü, hakkımızda, basın/ haber odası, medya bölümlerinin yüksek puan aldıkları görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda dizin/menü biriminin % 88 oranında ana sayfada yer aldığı görülmüş, ancak 3 web sitesinde bu birimin bulunmadığı

belirlenmiştir. İncelenen web sitelerinin % 66’sının misyon ifadesine yer verdiği, bu ifadenin % 7’sine ana sayfada, % 55’ine birinci tıklamada, % 3’üne ise ikinci tıklamada ulaşıldığı belirlenmiştir. Sıkça sorulan sorulara bakıldığında ise web sitelerinin % 22’sinde yer aldığı, bu oranın % 7’sinin ana sayfada, % 14’üne ise birinci tıklama ile erişildiği görülmek-

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tedir. Web sitelerinin % 70’inde e-bülten biriminin yer aldığı, bunun % 18’ine ana sayfada, % 48’ine birinci tıklamada, % 3’üne ise ikinci tıklamada ulaşıldığı belirlenmiştir. Kısa anket biriminin web sitelerinin sadece % 3’ünde birinci tıklama ile ulaşıldığı görülmektedir. Web sitelerinin % 77’sinde medya (indirilebilen belgeler) biriminin bulunduğu, bu oranın % 33’üne ana sayfada, % 22’sine birinci tıklamada, % 22’sine ise ikinci tıklamada ulaşıldığı belirlenmiştir. Aktivist web sitelerinin % 82’sinde hakkımızda biriminin bulunduğu, bu oranın % 37’sinde hakkımızda birimi ana sayfada, % 40’ında ikinci tıklamada, % 37’sinde ise ikinci tıklamada ulaşıldığı görülmektedir. Web sitelerinin % 81’inde basın/ haber odasının yer aldığı bu oranın % 77’sinin ana sayfada yer aldığı, % 37’sine ise birinci tıklamada erişildiği belirlenmiştir. Aktivist web sitelerinin faaliyetlerini haber verdikleri güncel olaylar biriminin ise % 66 oranında olduğu, bu oranın % 44’ünün ana sayfada, % 18’ine birinci tıklamada, % 3’üne ise ikinci tıklamada erişildiği tespit edilmiştir. Web sitelerinin % 51’inde gerçekleştirdikleri aktiviteleri ifade ettikleri aktiviteler biriminin yer aldığı, bunun % 14’ünün ana sayfada, % 33’ünün birinci tıklamada, % 3’ünün ise ikinci tıklamada ulaşıldığı belirlenmiştir. Aktivist web sitelerinin ikinci düzey etkileşim araçları incelendiğinde sohbet odası ve mesaj tahtası birimlerinin düşük oranlara sahip olduğu, ancak e-posta, tartışma grupları, geribildirim, yorumlar, iletişim, blog, sosyal medya vb. birimlerinin yüksek puan aldıkları görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda e-posta / tartışma grupları biriminin % 66 oranında yer aldığı, bu oranın % 18’inin ana sayfada, % 37’sinin birinci tıklamada, % 7’sinin ikinci tıklamada, % 3’ünün ise üçüncü tıklamada erişildiği belirlenmiştir. Sohbet odası biriminin düşük bir oranda yer aldığı, % 3 oranında birinci tıklama ile erişim olduğu görülmüştür. Bülten/ mesaj tahtası biriminin ise % 18 oranında bulunduğu, bu oranın % 3’üne birinci tıklamada, % 11’ine ikinci tıklamada, % 3’üne ise üçüncü tıklamada erişildiği tespit edilmiştir. Geribildirim/ yorumlar biriminin web sitelerinin % 59’unda yer aldığı bu oranın % 3’üne ana sayfada, % 40’ına birinci tıklamada, % 11’ine ikinci tıklamada, % 3’üne ise üçüncü tıklamada erişim sağlandığı görülmektedir. Üyelik biriminin ise web sitelerinin % 81’inde yer aldığı, bu oranın % 33’üne ana sayfa, % 29’una birinci tıklama ile, % 3’üne ikinci tıklama ile, % 14’ün ise üçüncü tıklama ile erişim sağlandığı belirlenmiştir. Web sitelerinin % 70 oranında daha fazla bilgi birimine sahip olduğu, bu oranın % 59’unun ana sayfada, % 11’ine ise birinci tıklamada ulaşıldığı görülmektedir. Web sitelerinin % 74’ünde iletişim biriminin yer

aldığı, bu oranın % 25’inin ana sayfada, % 44’ünün birinci tıklamada, % 3’ünün ikinci tıklamada bulunduğu belirlenmiştir. Aktivist web sitelerinin sosyal medya ortamlarına erişimleri ve bu ortamlarda gerçekleştirilen erişimin değerlendirilmesi amacı ile kodlama formuna eklenen blog ve sosyal medya birimleri incelendiğinde yüksek oranda web siteleri tarafından erişim ve iletişim sağlandığı görülmektedir. Blog biriminin % 55 oranında yer aldığı, bu oranın % 18’inin ana sayfada, % 29’unun birinci tıklamada, % 7’sinin ikinci tıklamada erişim sağlandığı görülmektedir. Bununla birlikte sosyal medya birimine bakıldığında ise web sitelerinin % 77’sinde sosyal medya biriminin bulunduğu, bunun % 40’ının ana sayfada, % 37’sinin birinci tıklamada erişim sağladığı görülmektedir. SONUÇ Bilginin üretimi ve yayılımının zamandan, mekandan bağımsız, hızlı ve kolayca gerçekleşmeye başladığı günümüz teknoloji dünyasında, reel dünyanın varlığı kadar elektronik ağlarla çevrelenmiş ve inşa edilmiş sanal ortamın iletişim dünyası da gerçeğin bir yansıması gibi kendini yapılandırmaktadır. Bu yansımada bireyler sanal ortam içinde bilgiyi üretmekte, yaymakta, yeni bilgilere ulaşmakta, iletişim kurmakta, ihtiyaçlarını giderecek eylemler içine girmekte, kendilerini ifade etmekte ve tüm bunları da reel dünyanın sınırlılıklarından uzak kalarak gerçekleştirmektedirler. Somut dünyanın dışında bir dünya gibi algılanan sanal dünyada, yaşamı kolaylaştıran iletişim araçları ise sosyal medya olarak da adlandırılan yeni nesil iletişim araçları olarak görülmektedir. Kullanıcının hiçbir teknolojik sınırlılıkla engellenmediği, kolaylıkla sisteme dahil olarak işletebildiği bloglar, sosyal ağ siteleri, wikiler, içerik paylaşım siteleri vb. araçlar bireylerin kendilerini anlatabildikleri, fikirlerini ortaya koyabildikleri ve diğerleriyle paylaşarak ortak hedefler etrafında eylem planları oluşturabildikleri yeni nesil araçlar arasında yer almaktadır. Bu yeni nesil araçlar sahip oldukları nitelikler ve sundukları avantajlar ile günümüzün teknolojik merkezli yaşamı içinde toplumsal hareketlerin destekçisi ve yaratıcısı konumundaki aktivistlerin de varlık alanları haline gelmiştir. Günümüzde aktivist hareketler bilgi iletişim teknolojilerinin sunduğu avantajları göz ardı edememekte ve dijital aktivizm olgusu bu noktada kendini göstermektedir. Toplumsal bir olaya dikkat çekmek, bu olay etrafında bir kamuoyu oluşturarak etkin bir lobi çalışması başlatmak, hem sanal ortamda hem de reel ortamda tepkilerini ortaya koyacak eylem

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planları oluşturmak ve bu eylem planları etrafında aktivistleri bir araya toplamak, destekçiler bulmak gibi amaçlarla sosyal medyanın dijital aktivizmde de kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Sosyal ağların hızlı ve sınırsız bilgi yayımına imkan veren doğası, dijital aktivizmin de doğasında var olan tartışmalı bir duruma tepki göstermek ve bir kamuoyu baskısı yaratmak amacına en etkin şekilde hizmet etmektedir. Bu süreçte aktivist grupların web siteleri üzerinden karşılıklı, etkileşime dayanan diyolog araçları ve aktivist grubun kendini ifade etmesi üzerine kurulu diyologa dayanan iletişim araçlarının kullanımı ile bilgi iletişim teknolojilerinin etkisinde şekillenen etkin iletişim süreci etkisini yoğun olarak hissettirmektedir. Bu anlamda yapılan araştırmada aktivist web

siteleri incelendiğinde etkileşim araçları düzeyinin daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. İletişim bilgisi, daha fazla bilgi, e-posta listesinin sitelerde yoğun olarak kullanıldığı görülmekte, bununla birlikte aktivist web sitelerinden blog ve sosyal medyaya ilişkin bağlantıların yüksek oranda bulunduğu belirlenmiştir. Diyalog araçları içerisinde ise medya, haber odası, hakkımızda ve güncel olaylar birimlerinin yüksek oranda kullanıldığı tespit edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak aktivist web sitelerinde bilgi verme özelliğini destekleyen nitelikte karşılıklılık özelliğinin ön plana çıktığı, aynı zamanda sosyal medya ile bağlantılar sağlanarak güncel olayların ve aktivitelerin paylaşıldığı ifade edilebilir.

KAYNAKLAR Beatty, P.J.

(2001) Dialogic Communication In The Supervision Process: A Humanistic Approach, Education, 2001,Vol.97, No:3.

Buccilli D

(2011) Activism Changed by Facebook Twitter, The Michigan Daily, Thursday, February, 10, 2011, 1

Cammaerts, B (2007) Activism and Media, Barts Cammaerts and Nicos Carpentier (eds), Reclaiming The Media, Intellect Ltd., 217-224 Jacobs D

(2005) Internet Activism and the Democratic Emergency in the U.S., Eohemera Theory&Politics in Organization, Vol: 5(1), 68-77.

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Paytan F C, Hales K D (2009). Social Activism in the ‘Blackosphere’:The Jena 6 Case, J. In Park ve E. Abels (eds), Interpersonal and Social Patterns in Communication Technologies: Discourse Norms, Language Structures and Cultural Variables, Idea Group Inc., 1-17.

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(2011) Social Networking & Virtual Community, Proteus A Journal of Ideas, Vol:27:1, 51-56.

Mazzini, R.

(2004) A content analysis of activist group use of dialogic tools on the world wide web,Master of Arts School of Mass Communications College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida.

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Rotman D,

Veiweg S, Yardi S, Chi E H, Preece J, Shneiderman B, Pirolli P, Glaisyer T (2001) From Slactivism to Activism: Participatory Culture in the Age of Social Media, http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1980000/1979543/ p819rotman.pdf?ip=155.223.100.25&CFI D=36217971&CFTOKEN=88808083&__acm__=1311325483_765e0564e7182dcebf1 591a81ad0957b, 1-4, erişim rarihi:28.07.2011.

Shirky C

(2010) Herkes Örgüt: İnternet Gruplarının Gücü, Pınar Şiraz (çev.), Optimist Yayın Dağıtım, İstanbul.

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(http://www.marietruman.com/portfolio/13-interpersonal-communication. html?start=1).

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Ek: 1 Aktivist Web Siteleri İsimleri ve Adres Bilgileri 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Transparency International World Faith Development Dialogue World Vision Bank Information Center Bretton Woods Project Christian Aid Coordination SUD Catholic Relief Services The Center of Concern Central and Eastern Europe Bankwatch (CEE) Citizens’ Network on Essential Services (CNES) CIVICUS Education for Employment Foundation Environmental Defense Eurodad Friends of the Earth The Global Health Council The Glocal Forum Human Rights Watch International Trade Union Confederation The Institute of Harzrat Mohammad (SAW) The Global Unions Instituto Marquês de Valle International Rivers The Nature Conservancy Oxfam International Save the Children InterAction Search for Common Ground Social Watch The Access İnitiative Action Aid World Wildlife Fund (WWF)

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http://www.transparency.org/index.html http://www.wfdd.org.uk/index.html http://www.wvi.org/home.shtml http://www.bicusa.org/en/index.aspx http://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/ http://www.christianaid.org.uk/ http://www.coordinationsud.org/ http://www.catholicrelief.org/home.cfm https://www.coc.org/ http://bankwatch.org/overview/index.html http://challengeglobalization.org/ http://www.civicus.org/ http://www.efefoundation.org/homepage.html http://www.edf.org/ http://eurodad.org/ http://www.foe.org/ http://www.globalhealth.org/ http://www.glocalforum.org/ http://www.hrw.org/ http://www.icftu.org/default.asp?Language=EN http://www.ihmsaw.org/ http://www.global-unions.org/?lang=en http://www.im-valle-flor.pt/ http://www.internationalrivers.org/how-we-work http://www.nature.org/ http://www.oxfam.org/eng/ http://www.savethechildren.org http://www.interaction.org/ http://www3.searchforcommonground.org/ http://www.socialwatch.org/ http://www.accessinitiative.org/ http://www.actionaid.org/?intl= http://www.wwf.org/

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For the International Conference on New Media of the Istanbul University to be held on 17-18 October 2012 National Information Society Building and New Media Zemfira Maharramli Chief of the Information and Public Affairs Unit of the Commissioner for Human Rights of the Republic of Azerbaijan PAPER

to the information holder and to choose the type or the way of possession of information”.

Today new media process itself is a tribunal of transparency, independence and of different thinking of the Azeri society. The role of new media was strengthened as a mirror of society and mean of objective public opinion. The Press Council, regulating the press, is operating and also the Code of Ethic Norms of Journalists was adopted in the country. As a consequence of the taken complex measures, internet began dynamically develop; the scope of digital system was broaden in Azerbaijan. The main goals of activities in the Information-Communication technologies (IT) in Azerbaijan include issues creating of legal framework, development of a human factor, establishment of e-government, and extension of rights of citizens to access to information, its distribution and broadening of right to its usage and strengthening intellectual potential as such. The aim of the “State Program on Development of Communication and Information technologies in the Republic of Azerbaijan for 2010-2012 years” is to promote of establishment of e-government in the country, to organize e-services and therefore, supply all public authorities with modern IT and also, to take complex measures of simple, easy and free use of such services by the stakeholders. “The National Program for Action to raise Effectiveness of the Protection of Human Rights and Freedoms in the Republic of Azerbaijan” approved by the Presidential Order dated 27 December 2011, is successfully implemented. That program specifies also issues such as relations with mass media and new media. According to the Law of the Republic of Azerbaijan on “Access to Information”, everyone has the right directly or through his/her representative to apply

In addition to this, according to the additions and amendments applied to the Constitutional Law on the Commissioner for Human Rights (Ombudsman) of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the Ombudsman was designated to exercise control over execution of the requirements arising from the Law of the Republic of Azerbaijan on “Access to Information”. Since of extension of the Ombudsman’s mandate and of new mandates given to her, Ombudsman held range of consultations with participation of representatives of mass media, including new media, well-known experts specialized in media rights, information holding state bodies and heads of press services in the Office. The creation of public status Group of Experts in relation to the implementation of the new mandates was recommended. As a result, given recommendations are generalized and contributed to the activity concerned. As stated in the NAP for 2012-2015 years concerning the agitation of the State for application of transparency, several measures have been taken and the control over execution of the Law on “Access to Information”. The improving of the structure of the Ombudsman Office and involving of staff members specialized in this area into training are taken into consideration. For simplifying the access to information, numerous practical measures were taken in the frame of the “National Strategy on Increasing Transparency and against Corruption“. Besides, significant steps were taken for organization of e-services and the second “State Program on E-Government” in 2010 was adopted. For ensuring e-services on the base of a “single window” principle, the single e-portal was created.

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Our activity as information holding body is also effective. Thus, our Office draws a great attention to relations with mass media, including rapid, dynamic new media structures, e-newspapers and news portals. As an integral part of our activity, such relations are multiply and vary. The Press service of the Ombudsman Office prepared and disseminated over 2700 press releases during their 10 years of activity. Moreover, these press releases are regularly translated into English and sent to the CoE. More than 8400 press releases about the activity of Ombudsman were published in media. We regularly control updating of our Office webpage as well.

access to information and transparency, and development of relations with internet resources and press releases and opinions and analyzes by media representatives are taken into account. Requirements given to new media such as, principles of objectivity, conscientiousness, compliance with ethical rules and efficiency are paid a great attention. New media has several duties in the information society. The objective news are the most valuable resource reflected the truth in the modern world demanded fundamental changes for the right of a person to update information.

Our Office as one of the most open bodies to the press, held range of events on improvement of the national press, e-and written media, digital and online journalism, journalists, including improving of vocational training of media representatives writing about law, increasing opportunities of IT usage,

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The Role Of New Medıa Applications To Increase Firm Value Assoc. Prof. Dr. İclal ATTİLA Marmara University, İstanbul, TÜRKİYE [email protected] ABSTRACT In today’s globalizing world, new media applications have started to play a bigger role and these new media applicationshave become a necessity for companies. These applications have absolutecontributions to the brand and thus to the firm value. This study will start with giving information about the firm value by explaining the new media and the new media applications. The study will then continue with examining the new media applications of the insurance companies trading on İstanbul Stock Exchange. INTRODUCTION Financial authorities are expected to maximize the market value of the firm in the long run in accordance with the target of the company. And this is feasible only by revising the financial techniques, strategies and the organizational structures of the companies. Globalization, developing communication technologies and computers have influenced the traditional approaches on how firm values are estimated. Firms should restructure their management, accounting and finance policies in accordance with the rules of the information age. The market value of firms is affected positively when performances of the companies in their business segment are supported with the new media applications, One of the most significant and effective fields formed by the combination of the internet, new media and communication technologies is “social media.” Social media, which can be defined as a super-structure where an unlimited number of people can express their limitless opinions as in Facebook, Twitter and blogs, has been one of the fields that the business environments have attached great importance to as for brand value and thus firm value. It has therefore been a sector on which strategies should be formed. This study aims to examine the importance of media applications concerning their contibution to the firm value and to examine the ways insurance companies operating in the Turkish finance sector make use of the new media applications. Within this framework, the study will start by explaining the new media and new media applications and it will give information about firm value. Then the study will continue with explaining the ways the Turkish insurance sector uses

the new media. This study is limited to the insurance companies trading on the İstanbul Stock Exchange. This study will form the basis of a latter study which will analyze the market value of these companies in the five year period (2009-2013). THE NEW MEDIA CONCEPT One of the last stops in the global information flow which started with the internet is the social networks. These social networks have changed the time and space concepts once again and have resulted in a new interpretation of the individual and social lives. The most meaningful definition to understand and identify this new process that takes place in a global network circle is “network community”. Manuel Castells puts it as “Individuals now live in a network community that is woven globally and locally and that is connected to each other.” (Binark et al, 2009:25). The concept of new media was first used by researches doing social, psychological, economic, politic and cultural studies on information and communication based researches in the 1970s. However the meaning attached to this word in the 1970s expanded with the accelerating advances in computer and internet technologies and thus attained different dimensions. (Thompson, 1995:23-25). According to Cardoso “New Media” conceptualization should be used for media services which are the new tools of communication, which promote the innovative ways of cooperating with developing technologies, which combine interpersonal communication and mass communication feautures within the same platform, which reshape corporate transformation and time management, which make a synthesis of textual and visual discourse and which therefore develop a new type of user and restructuring tools in the social context (Cardosa, 2006:124).

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The most typical example for “new media” is the internet which is both a mass media tool and a means of interpersonal communication at the same time. As a technology base, the internet can serve to these two sides. Besides it is legitimate that the internet, which is getting much more widespread compared to the former communication tools, is considered as the new central element of the media system both by the market and the government (Jakubowicz, 2009:15). In the internet medium there is a wide spectrum which contains both the various types of interpersonal communication that are not subject to any content regulations and different kinds of servicessimilar to television broadcasting which are designed for public communication. And between these two different edges are the new media services such as “social network services”, “search engines”, “network diaries”, “video sharing sites” etc. which do not have a definition in traditional communication environments and which are being more actively used by people. FIRM VALUE AND BRAND In finance literatüre,value is defined as the total utilitythat any commodity provides, the usage value and the amount of commodities that can be taken in return when they are given to someone else (Akyüz, 1990:64–65). In other words, value is the useful qualities that a commodity, idea or service has (Gage, 1969:15). The value of a firm can be defined as the trade value determined by enthusiastic and well informed buyers and sellers wihout any kind of pressure. Within this respect: - The determinative factor for the firms is the cash flow the firm can provide to its shareholders. - Firm value is revealed when capital profitof the firm (CP = Net Profit / Assets) exceeds capital costs ( CC ): (CP>CC). Firm value can be obtained by analyzing the assests of the firm, it’s organizational structure, the technologies it uses, human resources and the anticipated cash flows for the future. Since assets of the firm are valuable as long as they can create cash, firm value is estimated by forecasting the cash flows (Chambers, 2005:12). Factors creating firm value have undergone significant changes and they are moving away from ma-

terialistic assets and getting closer to non material assets which are formed via the use of information, technology and production. With the help and usage of the internet, institutions can connect their distant units; they can connect to consumers, resource and raw material providers; people can easily access to information and data they need; they can provide after sales support; they can provide publishing services and they can reach to new promotion and communication opportunities (Peltekoğlu, 1998: 213). The target of financial management in information technology is to maximize the firm value and thus the brand value of the firm. In today’s world, information economy is very popular and the firms have started to play an active role in the light of these changes. They have managed to effect their firm value and brand value with the information infrastructure they have (Çelikkol & Yıldız, 2003:615). Brand is associated with a feature ranging from registration process to firm value process. American Marketing Association defines brand as follows: A name, term, sign, symbol, figure or the combination of these which defines the goods and services of a supplier or a group of suppliers and which aims to differentiate them from their competitors (Çabuk & Ar, 2007:62). In today’s communication and technology medium, brand has gone beyond just being sound and image. Brand has the attribute of positioning a product or a service in the minds of the consumers within trust and quality concepts. As a result of this feature, brand gains a new position different from the product’s qualities and functionality and becomes the primary preference of the consumers (Bulunmaz, 2011:22). Brand is a name, a sign, a symbol, a design or the combination of these all. And this helps suppliers define their products or services and differentiate their products or services from those of their competitors’(Kotler et al, 1999:571). Forthe consumers brand is the easiest and the most effective way to get to know a product. Consumers do not give up using the products as long as they are happy and satisfied with them (Çabuk & Ar, 2007: 63). E-brand management which emerged as a result of carrying out or supporting all or some of brand management activities electronically through information technologies and internet based technologies can be defined in accordance with the aspects of new economy, new business managements and technology. From the point of view of the new economy, e-brand management is an important tool for companies to

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get the competitive edge. And according to the new business managements, e-brand management is a customer based brand management philosophy. And from the technological outlook, e-brand management is the integration of today’s technology with the management activities to get more effective and efficient results (Büyüközkan, 2005:195). It is also essential for brand management to consider the consequential benefits of the internet which is defined as the new media (Sutton & Klein, 2007:154-155). In order to increase the efficiency of brand management, there are important advantages that can only provided by the internet. Because internet can address different senses at the same time and by this way it can form an emotional bond. According to the researches (Büyüközkan, 2007:228); · Only 10 % of people who can read

forgot what they were told. The brand which is preferred, known, appreciated and bought by the customers in the process of the firm’s value increase period should act in accordance with the expectations and requests of the consumers. Consumers who are more informed, willing and reactive onlineare not easy piece of work forthe brand. It is very difficult to control consumers whoimmediately inform the brand about their response. Firms should incorporate some new features to get over this difficulty. And the answer lies on the concept of interactivity. Analysis of interactive behavior patterns and consequently compatible behaviors of each unit in the firm’s brand management with this interactivity contributes significantly to the brand. And this contribution helps to establish an interactive brand and thus the firm value increases (Fidan, 2008:158). NEW MEDIA APPLICATION USAGES OF THE INSURANCE COMPANIES TRADING ON THE İSTANBUL STOCK EXCHANGE

· Only 20 % of people who can hear · Only 30 % of people who can see · 50 % of people who can see and hear · 80 % of people who say · 90 % of people who say and do remember the events. In the same way, when 100 people were told about a subject

The necessity that firms should integrate the new media applications into their own business models and organizational structures has been an important requirement in the competitive business world. New marketing applications that are shaped in accordance with the new media is also one of the other fields that firms should pay special attention to.

The following study reveals the findings about the new media applications of seven insurance compa· 50 % of them after 48 hours nies trading on the İstanbul Stock Exchange. This study forms the basis of a latter study which will · 75 % of them after 72 hours analyze the market value of these companies in the five year period (2009-2013). The study shows us · 96 % of them after one week the data on September 1, 2012. TABLE1: The chart shows the results of the research. · 25 % of them after 24 hours

Active Internet Sites

Facebook

Twitter

Youtube

Publishing Campaigns and New Products Online

News About The Firm That Appear On Press

Aksigorta

A

A

A

A

A

A

Anadolu Hayat Emeklilik

A

A

A

N/A

A

A

Anadolu Sigorta

A

A

A

A

A

A

Aviva Sigorta

A

A

A

N/A

A

N/A

Güneş Sigorta

A

A

A

N/A

A

N/A

Ray Sigorta

A

N/A

N/A

N/A

A

N/A

Yapı Kredi Sigorta

A

N/A

N/A

N/A

A

N/A

As for September 2012,there are interactive campaigns on the web site of Aksigorta Company. The web site also publishes news about the firm which appear on the press. Aksigorta’s facebook group has 8.795 members. Aksigorta has a twitter account with 797 followers.

As for September 2012, there are interactive campaigns on the web site of Anadolu Life Insurance Company.The web site also publishes news about the firm which appear on the press. Anadolu Life Insurance’s facebook group has 10.289 members. Anadolu Life Insurance has a twitter account with 599 followers.

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As for September 2012, there are interactive campaigns on the web site of Anadolu Insurance Company. The web site also publishes news about the firm which appear on the press. Anadolu Insurance’s facebook group has 11.434 members. Anadolu Insurance has a twitter account with 1.248 followers. As for September 2012, there are interactive campaigns on the web site of Aviva Insurance Company. The web site does not publish news about the firm which appear on the press. The number of Aviva Insurance’s facebook group members could not be obtained. Aviva Insurance has a twitter account; however the number of followers could not be obtained. As for September 2012, there are interactive campaigns on the web site of Güneş Insurance Company. The web site does not publish news about the firm which appear on the press. Güneş Insurance’s facebook group has 18.315 members. Anadolu Insurance Company has a twitter account with 1.522 followers.

information technologysystems and communication cause customers’ preferences to change quickly. And this situation has led firms operating in Turkish finance sector as well as all other firms to form new organizational structures and to effectively use new media applications. While the study about the insurance companies trading on İstanbul Stock Exchange shows that the firms are actively using the new media applications, we cannot talk about absolute activity for all firms. And these applications definitely contribute positively to the brand and increase the value of the firm. But it is very difficult to express the contribution of new media applications to the market value in figures. This study will form the basis of a latter study which will analyze the market value of these companies in the five year period (2009-2013). And by this way the relation between the new media applications andthe firm value will be revealed analytically.

As for September 2012, there aren’t any interactive campaigns on the web site of Ray Insurance Company. The web site does not publish news about the firm which appear on the press. Ray Insurance Company does not have a Facebook page or a Twitter account. As for September 2012, there are interactive campaigns on the web site of Yapı Kredi Insurance Company. The web site does not publish news about the firm which appear on the press. Yapı Kredi Insurance does not have a Facebook page or a Twitter account. CONCLUSION Due to the fast development of the technology and the expansion of the internet and increase of it’s speed, traditional business habits and transactions both in social fields and in business world have changed a great deal. These changes have introduced many new concepts into our lives. One of these concepts is the new media. The advancements in technology and the new applications brought by these advancements force companies to change. The idea that the dominance of the big companies in global economies will continue in the future may be wrong because the rapid change in this process provides various opportunities to the company. Advancements in technology,

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BULUNMAZ, B. (2011). “Otomotiv Sektöründe Sosyal Medyanın Kullanımı Ve Fiat Örneği”, www.globalmediajournaltr.yeditepeedu.tr/makalele, date of access: 18.07.2012. BÜYÜKÖZKAN, G. (2005). “Elektronik Marka Yönetimi.” Gaziantep: Marka Yönetimi Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı. 195-200. BÜYÜKÖZKAN, G. (2007). “Elektronik Marka Yönetimi”, Türkay Dereli ve Adil Baykasoğlu (ed.), Toplam Marka Yönetimi, Hayat Yayıncılık, İstanbul. ÇABUK, A. & AR A. A. (2007). “Markalaşmada Kalite Yönetiminin Yeri ve Önemi”, Türkay Dereli ve Adil Baykasoğlu (ed.), Toplam Marka Yönetimi, Hayat Yayıncılık, İstanbul. CARDOSO, G.

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F. B. (1998). Halkla İlişkiler Nedir?, Beta Yayın, İstanbul.

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D.& KLEIN, T. (2007). Kurumsal Pazarlama Yönetimi Pazarlama Sanat Değil, Bilimdir, (çev) Dinç Tayanç, (Mediacat Kitapları,İstanbul.

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A Theoretical Comparison On The Psychosocial Manner Of Modern Man In The Internet Habibe ÖNGÖREN Assist. Prof. Dr., Istanbul University, School of Communication. Ali Barış KAPLAN Doctorate Student at Istanbul University SSC on Radio-TV and Cinema Major Discipline Abstract Psychosocial frame assesment of the derivated datum of many anthropological and ethnographic studies leads us to realize that from primitives to modern man the significant struggling to survival acts of human both within natüre and cultural environment is being followed smilliar psychophysical ways, and this points out that it is being functionalized not in completely different modes on the basis of cognitive and behavioral processes of human. The organization of cognitive processes which neurologically give shape to the human behavior, have being organized throught out parallel defense mechanisms and is being processed on smilliar adaptation processes from primitive human to modern man. Here it apparently indicates that, adaptive ordinary abilities of human cognition is being “protected and preserved”, and this preservation mechanism is psychodynamically being processed on equivalent ways and follows parallel paths for both modern man and primitives. The major assertion of Critical Theory and Simulation postulate does not neighter denominate nor reflects the reality of psychodynamic structure of human natüre by claiming that; In the consumption culture the usage of internet denaturizes and converts the behavior of individual, and modifies the aptitude and tendencies of society, by concealing the human conscious and/or corrupting some divisions of human cognition and inhibiting mental faculties. According to the proposition of Critical Theory which alleges that the preferences and the behaviors of modern man is being somehow inhibited and corrupted, and the mental capabilities of Individuals are being censored. As a matter of fact; In this study we shall poly-syntetically try to argue that how much this mentioned asertation does have proximity impacts with the reality. Keywords: Adaptation, Simulation, Conscious, Internet, Mandala, Screen. Prologue The dead sometimes can be stronger than the ones on alive; the ghosts of past will follow us forever; we can not be not to be inheritors, “on the Neurologic and Conscious basis” (Sim, 2000:36). Derrida Frankfurt School and Critical Theory critically discuss historical dialectic within a philosophical framework and criticize Industrial Revolution that has been intensively revealed by the Positivist point of view especially from 19th century; World of Machines; and new world order and new sociologies rationalized by the capital. As a result, by presenting new ‘reason’s’ new functional ‘language’ they suggest the individual human and society a critical ‘consciousness’, which is the reason of self and the other and has an

adaptive potential; and ‘cognition’ (Adorno, 2007). Hence, the School and the Critical Theory, critically analyze the given dialectic system within the context of historical dialectic and Marxist perspective; and criticize Cartesian Dualism that has been continues since Descartes and its philosophical valuations; criticize the process of constructing meaning based on the opposites and binary logic; and refuse Hegelian philosophy’s premises and axioms based on the law of identity. In addition, in his work Minima Moralia Adorno, who stays the course of Negative Dialectic, critically discusses even Psychoanalysis, which is a new science and aims to solve some pathologic problems of human beings and tries to offer a psychodynamic explanation for social and cultural structures through the theory that it is based, for trying to enlighten mental world through a logic based on dichotomy, and trying to adapt ‘Determinism’ which is a product of a Positivist logic to mental structure, and

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for some other reasons (Adorno, 2005:64-65; Horkheimer, 2005). Within the framework of Critical Theory, School’s followers and poststructuralist scientists critically discuss the individual trying to survive from the practices of culture industry based on capitalist system; society’s state of mind; and, individuals’ perception and interpretation platforms shaped through the new order by pessimistically describing them within a psycho-social frame. In this study, it was revealed that the way organizing cognitive processes of mechanism that shapes individual’s behaviors neurologically, has been protected from past to present. It was also shown that internet usage, like all texts presented to masses and commoditized instruments, diversifies modern individuals’ structure of behavior instead of negatively changing it; and this is not an unconscious process, but an informed choice. We can roughly summarize the reasons of opinions that descriptively define the given situation and do not offer solution in general terms; and refer to the descriptions of modern society’s current circumstances from cognitive and social perspectives. Since the second half of 19th century, through increasing efficiency, the phenomenon of excessive consumption has been turned into an ideology for masses on the basis of culture industry. New equations were derived in order to sustain the relationship of dominance and independence; and social formation was reconstructed. Consumption is a kind of diet and compensation in exchange for maintaining the dominant and dependent groups’ socially separate status, and detaining human beings from humane abilities. The aim of the phenomenon of excessive consumption is far more than sustaining object’s major usage functions and vital factors. It prevented human’s ability to think freely by forming new aims and meanings. A great majority of the needs of the modern human is, in fact, artificial. Properties and objects are consumed not because of their material values, but due to their cultural forms and icon meanings. Passive human being who cannot change his real world and sees everything as a tool and turns into a tool himself, and alienates to his inner world and external reality, cannot experience his humane sides; as a result, he acts out by fetishizing his external appearance, transforming his lacking of individuality to an idol and being in his own inner world in a narcissist and transsexual state of mind. Liberation and

freedom of an individual are objects instrumentalized with the aim of sustaining the existence system, not to realize and improve human being’s humane abilities through symbolic exchange and iconological communication that actualize within the structure and existence of consumption-production relations. Actual platforms based on the so-called freedom and its concepts transformed our identity, status, and power into structural objects of pleasure, which can be bought and sold, circulated, produced and consumed; and modern playgrounds. Individuals, the very topic of the culture industry, were impregnated with pragmatic and utilitarian thoughts that reduce account to the society. The individual, as a machine, became shallow; his relationships with others in his spare time were limited, and he was drawn away from the consciousness of social existence. The blinkers in his eyes only aim to reach to the upper class life style; and/or aim to be able to at least pretend that life style. By doing so, the individual became alienated first to himself, then to his status in society, and to his society as a whole (Kaplan, 2006). According to Baudlaire; ‘Modern human continues his life with himself and with the social environment, via avery relationship that indicates as if it is a fraternal prostitution’ (Oskay, 2000). Modern human rapidly became alienated to himself, to his society and external reality along with the industrial revolution; he was commoditized. Dependent technology and all its products, which are imposed in a polarized way by cultural hegemony created by Industrial Capitalism, has turned the social formation against its own potential competence; human became alienated to goods and to himself. Icon and Meta fetishism, as phenomenon, is not an absolute individual inconsistency or absolute social result or problem. In a given society, in which technology is regularly-randomly injected in an ordered-unordered, programmed-unprogrammed way; this fetishism is not an absolute imaginary interaction or reflex problem either. Spectral-imaginary existence is a problem of alienation basically created by asymmetrical mind that comes with icons. Fantasies existing outside of the real world have become to be life itself. Being manipulated by capitalist hegemony, political personnel and pressure groups; science and technology have been transformed into an icon, which is the sole pattern, instrument, and message, serves to change the individual and individual’s perception of reality, and the world as a whole. Science and technology, which turned into

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a puppet, even engineers and scientists - whether aware or not- alienate human beings from the basic values of their real world and bereave individuals of their humane potentials and remove them. Science diverges from its aims, to give hope; to grace; and to bring prosperity. It is transformed into a quasi-science that will destroy the human being; so far from the main subjects of science; perfecting human being and transcending itself. According to Horkheimer and Adorno, the progress as development of machines and technology has become identical to the power of capitalist system in terms of subordinating and manipulating humanity and nature. Individual’s ability to reason and imagine were both dried up. A human being can only stay as ‘the part of nature’ until the moment that he is separated from the uterus. Later, he becomes the modular fetish human of the imaginary artificial world that was deflected with the concept and consciousness of time; a world filled with commoditized objects, icons, symbols, and virtual relations. Rather than being nature’s wrought creature, the individual becomes a digital circuit of this fictional virtual structure of modified physical world filled with re-shaped and re-created Meta and icons. In the external reality, human becomes the beaten-human, a formatted virtual so-called individual detached from nature, himself, and his humane competences in a virtual society. The world within he lives is a matrix world, of which the resource codes are captivated by capitalist hegemony. A world that has a vicious algorithm and competence and turns into one of the rewritable ‘Jpg’ extensions or ‘download’ slavery programs (Adorno, 2007; Horkheimer, 2005). According to Bauman, modular human is a mobile, disposable, and changeable creature in nature. Modular human is constantly drawing his own model and changing it according to the circumstances. This nature gives the liberal democratic system and civil society the opportunity to function. The quasi egalitarian democratic mainstreams of liberal global world and its system press mass community to expose the indicators of the external compulsory forms of liberation as an indicator of modern existence adapted on itself. As a result, it is punctuated that when the human being consumes more, he becomes more ‘visible’ and ‘free’; therefore, more civilized. By doing so it is insinuated (Bauman, 2000) that this is the only way for an individual to be a meaningful, joint owner, and acceptable part of the modern world. As Baudrillard sharply points that we pull our lives on just like a digital petticoat. The external reality,

which became comprehensible through the model screens indicated by orbits of symbolic compensation system in which only the given society and individual cognitive processes rapidly get into circulation, is; in fact, composed of commoditized appearances and hallow images of the individual; not the relations between individuals with humane potentials, ability and awareness. External reality has turned into images-spectrum based on fetish relations (Baudrillard, 2002). Jean Baudrillard points out that the reality that we experience, has transformed into a reality created by communication technology; in other words, we are in a virtual reality. For him this reality is threatening. Distances are removed; boundaries between real and imaginary, subject and object, and sexes are disappeared; now, everything is intermingled, hybridized, and transexuallized; everything has lost its essence. This is the reality that we experience; this is a simulative universe (Baudrillard, 2002). According to Baudrillard, he is; in point of fact, making the individuals-the main context of his propagandist discourses- recycling wastes of the similarizing homogeneous world. We live in an order that life and its image are intermingled (Baudrillard, 2008). Therefore, according to the critical theory; the individual has began to lose the meaning and awareness of his unity with nature, society, and himself (Kellner, 2006:134-164). Tocqueville and Oskay claim that although the width of relationships has increased, its intensity and depth have so much decreased that imprisoned the human being in the loneliness of his own heart; new equality only juxtaposed humans without any connection; political powers did not destroy the society, but limited life; it did not oppress but pressed the nation to a point that individuals became nothing but a herd composed of timid and hard working animals; and stupified them; and all of these were done easier than everyone assumes, by bringing together freedom’s external shapes (Oskay, 2000). On The Functionality of Social Networks and Human Needs: Assay Sample of Arabian Awake and Gaddafi Based on Psychoanalytical Perspective Internet and social networks can be counted as the examples of transformations of the structure of modern technologies, which bring mutually complementary transactional multi dimensional opportunities into use for individuals, on social basis (Castells, 2010).

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Let’s use the example of Arab Spring, West’s socalled democracy initiative project in Egypt, Libya, and currently in Syria: We watched wide open how the people of Libya, organized through social networks on internet, tragically assassinated their own leader in 2011. We watched the indefinable assassin through social networks and Television, on which the videos and images were posted by the participants. Gaddafi (as the leader of an authoritarian regime) who had –oilwhich is a reserve tool that has an indisputable function and a real value in the real world, to this respect, succeeded in being in opposition to imperial powers and dominant ideologies for a long time; from the moment that he allowed internet usage in his country and allowed to set-up the social networks believing that he would contribute to the freedom and development of the children of his country, he must have underestimated that this communicational object of consumption taken home would in due course seduce his children according to their mental and cultural potential in terms of liberation, globalization, and consuming more; and make them patricides and the victim is his very self. West innocently leaks in and causes a number of transformations in order to possess oil, which represents objective power and penis, freely and without being precluded/limited. Internet and social networks are like West’s potential virtual penis and the Jerusalem of free sharing. Gaddafi could not have coped with this virtual enemy; and, he was killed publicly in a holiday atmosphere by his own children who have developed hysterical-liberal symptoms under the heading of ‘social media brotherhood and solidarity’ in the mood for a new Apollo Brotherhood; they were charmed in the virtual world and registered to the new master as a volunteering disciple (Baudrillard, 2006). The killing ritual turned into a sacred savageness in the name of freedom (Freud, 2010). The amoral views were recorded through the miraculous mobile phones in which sacred applications were installed, and disciples sent them to the Temple as an ‘offer’. We, as modern primitives, ‘only watched’ them without any inner pain. We; as the free computational participants of dominant consciousness watched them in the Jungles of virtual media sharing within the framework of our new understanding of entertainment and intelligence, as if it is a religious ceremony where primitive people sacrifice their totem ancestor and collectively eat its flesh and drink its blood, and go into trans because of the demonstration and become numb not feeling bodily pain; as if nothing happened (Durkheim, 2004).

Here, a part of the people of Libya; in other words, a part which was ignored and was not included to administrative levels, has nothing to do with the arrangement of necessary requirements that are supposed to enhance vital conditions of motivations which prepared the basis of such a process. Compared with Western democracies and apart from their lack of fundamental human rights and related problems, the people of Libya who live under an authoritarian and despot regime, has average and high individual income among the people of the continent in which they live and in comparison with a number of less developed countries. Historically, primary factor that leads societies to revolt against the system in which they live is to be denied consistently regarding the fundamental needs-which are primarily material needs. It can be said that in general sense there is no material basic need of people of Libya that is denied and neglected. What caused the rioters whom were kept under pressure for many years and were not allowed to participate to administrative processes is, repressed hostile feelings of the ‘other’ tribe, who wants to take the place of current tribe that has the power. The tribes that cannot draw conclusion through conventional ways, have instrumentalized the virtual platform in order to afford advantage, they were organized through the social networks on internet, which is one of the channels (medium) brought by informatics technology(Fromm, 1995-2004). The potential content of social media that directs masses- as McLuhan also puts, affectionally directs an interpreter’s perception and interpretation processes because the ‘tool is the message’; and if under any circumstances the interpreter does not have an inner cause to satisfy his own privations, then all presentations of social media became the play ground’s unstable ghosts. Hence, if the people of Libya did not have the desire to change the strong power, which is represented by opposite tribes, new media tool and its content would have stayed as a modern play ground and a cathalitical medium that fulfills communicational functions. From psychosocial perspective, a human being tends to release his desires, deficiencies, privations, and suppressed sides once he azdiscovers an environment that he can freely reveal himself; and/or an authority to apply and complaint that will help to satisfy his needs. For example, in a rural society, an individual has to account for the community; because, the rural society does not have the space and domain to escape from its social realty (Weber, 2006; Freud, 1961). In such a community individual’s all behaviors are imprisoned in an area in which they can be observed, followed, and known. The individual

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can verify his tendencies that are conflicting with the society’s values and rules and not satisfying community’s rules by disguising under different identities and disappearing in a populous fast city life in which accounting for community has almost minimized and nobody knows nobody, time is divided into pieces, and relations are superficial and inconsistent. A similar process can be seen in social networks that are under hypertexts on internet, which is in a way the virtual substitution of the city from psychosocial perspective (Giddens, 2004). On the psychosocial basis, we may assert that a similliar process as well is being derivatively available and also having presence on the social networks in the Internet under hypertexts. In this case, here the social networks are virtually having role like an urban plane and functionalized as the psychosocial factor of cities in a replacement (Kaplan, 2006). All living and functionally differentiable fields and mediums are eventually subjected to rules (Freud, 2004; Morgan, 1994). Considering the primary usage of internet, idle behaviors that do not account for the others were reduced with the introduction of IT crimes act; and the individuals moving on hypertexts became responsible to the act as much as they are to the written and oral laws when they go out (Bauman, 2006-2000). Then the social change in Libya, we may claim, is not a result of neighther a struggle of democracization nor a challenge of any natural campaign of civilization movement, it seems like opposite assumptions are being holding on under de facto presence of mentioned parameters, those Libya public had naturally socalled mental investment in to. The psychosocial circumstances of the given fact indicate with its entire psychodynamical factors that indeed It was the movement having a conculusion as a result in a form of sentimental “revenge, vengeance and hostility” which those emotions do have a certain historical basis in primitive figures (Freud, 2010). That well suits West’s purposes on East, as an interference “to satisfy the defect of rulership” of the public in Arab Awake, in the name of socalled civil insurrection (Fromm, 2003). We should immediately mention that Western socalled democracy initiative is not a hidden policy. That is, the ‘so-called’ part of is known. West is the new image of Imperialism, and the real purpose of its policy to liberate east, is known. This policy is an initiative to capitalize the entire world and especi-

ally those countries governed by authoritarian regimes and have oil resources. It is known that these interventions have both economical and strategic reasons, and I think the reason why the discourse of media and social media, which includes individuals, is ‘democracy, liberation, protecting civilians’ is pretty clear (Bauman, 2003-2005; Wallerstein, 2006). In 21st century, the human being revels in the ‘violence and crime’ culture in which he lives and applies himself. This is not a delusion; that is, crimes around us cannot exist as the imposition of an external authority; Iniciative and Primitive Necessities are ever going to give up following human of which closed-down running at the background curtain of humanity (Fromm, 2006-2003; Bauman, 2000). The thing browsed around especially through media and social media networks, is like an image of the initiative to ‘liberate crime and violence’. This culture is designed as a ‘committal and confession’. In other words, for today’s individual who experiences opposing feelings at the same time, revenge (subconscious-violence) and feel guilty (super ego), goodness of collective (social Eros) is a lost feeling (Freud, 2004-1999-2002). We assume the discovery of global policy, behave childishly, will suit modern human’s book (!) however, science and arts can develop an independent discourse from this policy and guide to the future; because in science and art it is known that human being has a psychological side; and, because, what science and art desire to reach is the ‘universal goodness’ and ‘reality’ (Nietzsche, 2005; Lange, 1982; Gulbenkian Komisyonu, 2004). This culture does not suggest be mature. In this culture there are no wise characters that take lesson from individual and collective historicalness of Jung, matured and complete its individuation (Jung, 20062005-2004). This culture accepts that existence of such a being is against its nature, even dangerous. For this very reason, culture needs children wander between id and superego. These mature-look children enjoy to play with the strategy, to live between ‘to possess in order to consume more’ and the feel of guilty. The new look of modern society is just like a ‘children’s play’ fictionalized through informatics technology and social media networks; a play addresses to regress; not maturity. Just like in the world of the primitives (Debord, 2006, Bauman, 2001, Baudrillard, 2004-2006). Conclusion In fact, potential perception and explaination capabilites of primitif human about his cultural world and

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on physical environment, essentially are not much far different than our actual perceptions in the presence modern world and cultural sphere. In consequence, on the basis of the relationship we facilitate and establish with Reality there is no historical detachment, but uninterrupted contiunity; at least at neurological base in the frame of obtaining upper preferences of utilizing the abilities into adaptive advantages to stay on alive on the multiparameters of cultural and physical envirenment (Freud, 1961). For human groups who are bond with kinship and attached to the piece of nature that they belong, instead of the content of this attachment, the stimulating logical structure of the process comes to the fore. From a pseudo dynamical point of view, this structure is closely related to the process of interpreting ontological being on the basis of holding on to life regarding the “Uncertainty of Sphinx” which shows the basic problematic in human babies at oedipal phase. The fact that this generic problematic goes for both communities composed of adult individuals and modern human from the perspective of psychosocial dynamic; has been proved in many studies. Furthermore, cultural and social platforms, institutions function with their sole being as ontological components to which human beings can attach their existence. In human communities in which individuals are bond with kinship, Totem is the indicator of social Eros. Determining the terms of marriage for the individuals who are bond with love, and the basic element of these terms are the Ancestor Totem that they are bound up. This is, in fact, the indicator of Erotic Resource of social coupling. Ontological being is interpreted through the act ensuring the continuity of ancestor and the Totem to which the ancestor is attached. Just like a kid who bases his being to his mother through psychophysical processes and has autoerotic and incest affections; human communities also base their beings to a common totem; yet, on society level, the bond of incest is replaced by a kinship that strongly emphasizes on incest prohibition (Freud, 2010). Let’s refer to the resource of totem and taboo, which were generally accepted ethnographically before coming to the state of today’s societies. Totem is related to the ecological being that includes the flora and fauna in which the species live in. It is not a metaphysical, but an objective nature being to which the continuity of biological and cultural existence that determines the relationship between sexes of a certain species is attached. In short, totem is the necessary element of nature on which human communities try to hold and base

their life. According to the studies in all around the world, totem is a thing that societies associate with ecological environment in which they live and its vital resources like wheat, barley, monkey, deer, oil palm, and frog; or, life-threatening creatures and elements including rhino, lion, wolf, bear, and thunder. Primitive people are attached to their totems, as the selection of totem shows, with ambivalent affections. In this attachment/bond love and violence is, in fact, intermingled, and this situation is externalized through disguised ceremonial demonstrations and rituals. Social organization, including language, is shaped through ambivalent assessments (Durkheim, 2005; Morgan, 1994; Campbell, 2006; Bruhl, 2006). As a matter of fact, Claude Levi Strauss relates the relationship between functions and subjects to structural context of dual oppositions by grounding the community’s myth-mystical forms of organization on etiological resources of linguistic structure. Primitive human perceives and interprets the world he lives through spirits and the absolute power of thoughts based on magical assessments. Primitives’ interventions and participations to the real world are representatively formed by Mandalascreens in which Animas are used. The screen total (ecran total) of today’s human being is represented by all means of audio and visual areas through reanimating the real world phenomenon and events (Baudrillard, 2002-2006). The hunter who draws a sketch in a Mandala the representation of prey that he is going to hunt, by reanimating this process, a plan regarding real life, on Mandala screen the primitive human participates to the Animistic platform surrounding all his life. A modern human being who lives in a real world, works on the field in which he is expert- so he can hold on to life; develops functional adaptations in order to satisfy sociocultural need. At the end of the day, from psycho dynamical perspective, there are no profound differences between the impulsive causal reasons of the attitudes of hunter and the modern individual who is in front TV and computer, which can be described as modern Mandala-screen. The pragmatist necessity of a primitive hunter’s need to ceremonially and regularly draw Mandala on the floor before or during the hunt; however the techno-cultural opportunities are imposed to this individual by the commands of the given technology and social order of the society in which he lives, and whatever advantages and disadvantages those given imposition have; and how much free choice this ritual is, which is thought to gain objective favor, for the

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individual regarding the functioning of the real life; modern individual’s participation to visual and audio fields and especially interactively arranging his life on Internet, presenting himself and the other as signifier and the signified, watching the other’s and following it; joining to hyper textual fields where he can express his thoughts, opening blogs and mail accounts, registering to sharing portals like Facebook and Tweeter, watching movies, reading newspa-

per, online shopping and online organizing through various sharing can also be the imposition of the given society. Questioning the advantages and disadvantages of these meta-product and culturalmental fields asking how much of it is free choice is similar to the functionality of the meaning of a primitive human’s drawing Mandala on the floor, as was taught by given order taught and transferred by his ancestors.

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Digital Love: Romantic Relationships In Social Networking Sites Gülüm Şener Arel University, Faculty of Communication Media and Communication Systems Department [email protected], [email protected] Abstract

New digital communication technologies change the way individuals perceive and live their intimacy. Modern concepts such as intimacy, love, romance or sexuality gain new dimensions with the growing use of the internet and internet-related technologies. In this paper, my aim isto give the initial observations and results and to create a discussion on my ongoing research entitled “Changing intimacy in Turkey and New Intimacy Strategies in Social Media”. As a research method, we still continue to do in-depth interviews with individuals from different social segments chosen according to criteria such as age, sex, social, economic and educational level, types of relationship. In this paper, I would like introduce some of the principal themes and preliminary findings from my ongoing research project entitled “Social media, changing intimacy and new intimacy strategies in Turkey”. Theoretical approaches to this issue, my first in-depth interviews and my observations in the field of study show that different uses of electronic social networks transform intimacy, love, romantic relationships, sexuality, all concepts considered as a part of the private sphere of individuals in modern societies. As visiting electronic social networks becomes a daily ritual for many of us and these networks allow us to manage individuals’ social capital, it becomes necessary to redefine notions such as intimacy, love, romanticism, sexuality. One of the main hypothesis of this study is that individuals create new intimacy strategies using social media. Rather than seeing new media as a threat to privacy or intimacy, I argue that these new tools of communication based on user-generated-content enable internet users to shape actively and manage their distinct identities and relationships including intimate and romantic ones. Main questions of the research are as follows: “ What communication tools do internet users prefer in order to create their digital private sphere? For what purposes do they use them in their intimate relationships? What strategies do they develop in using social media to manage their intimate relationships?”. The originality of this project lies in the analysis of the changing perception of intimacy in Turkish cultural context, which is remarkably more different than other parts of the world, and the role of social media in this changing perception. As the subject of the research questions individuals’ private life, I chose the semi-conducted indepth interview research technique. Also, I think that it is difficult to find a homogenous cultural life in Turkey, so I preferred to conduct this research with different social groups in Turkey in order to understand different

perceptions of intimacy which have effects on their social media use. The criteria for choosing my interviewers are as follows: sex, age, types of relationships (monogamous, polygamous, married, single, homosexual, heterosexual, in search for a relationship etc.) class, social status, location, ethnicity, religious sects, political identity. Even though, there are many factors, I wonder if social media use standardise or not intimate relationships. Private sphere becomes more and more fragmented with the widespread use of Web 2.0 in the world, and it also creates new and discrete digital private spheres in which internet users construct and exhibit their identities. As Papacharissi (2009:407) argues, social media users share their own lives as they want to use multimedia tools in these semipublic, semiprivate spheres. In the theoretical part of this study, topics such as definitions of intimacy, its historical development, the separation of private life from public life in modern societies, the blurred frontiers between them in the postmodern era, how intimacy is perceived in different cultures, gender roles in intimate relationships will be discussed. The theoretical background of this work will be based on theories of intimacy developed by Western sociologists such as Giddens, Bauman, Beck as well as Eastern sociologists who studied intimacy in eastern societies, sociology of emotions and gender studies. Turkish social media users’ intimacy strategies will be analyzed and questioned in the light of all these theories. I preferred using the word “intimacy strategies” in my title because one of the features of social media is user-generated content and I also believe that social media users are clearly more active than traditional media audience, and they create “identity strategies” for

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themselves. I am at the beginning of the research project; I still continue reading and doing interviews, so now I’m going to present only the preliminary results of in-depth interviews with 12 people and my personal observations in the field of study. Main topics of this project will be: Love in the public sphere Social media are a new communication space in which private and public spheres have intersected, intimacy becomes public (doubtless, this fact can vary according to different features of social media: For instance, Facebook is a more closed network than others and it is considered as a more private space than Twitter or Instagram). If couples use personal tools cell phone, chat or e-mail, communication in a romantic relationship lasts in the private sphere; however, the relationship becomes public when it is shared in social networking sites. The fact that intimacy becomes public is not a brand new story. With the rise of individualist culture in the world, we are familiar to this culture of sharing privacy for a long time. TV shows such as “Big Brother” have already showed us that ordinary people could voluntarily share details of their personal lives. In these societies of spectacle, (Debord) the novelty brought by social media is the fact that internet users determine whether and how much they share or not their private lives. As digital communication technologies began to play a crucial role in human relationships, love and intimate relationships also change. First of all, romantic relationships becomes a public issue shared with friends in social networking sites. For example, choosing “relationships status” on Facebook profile can be considered as a sign of the start as well as the end of a relationship. Burcu is a 21 years-old college student and she wants her boyfriend to mention her name in his Facebook profile page. “Mentioning “in a relationship” is not enough for me. I want him to put my name besides. Thus, other girls must be cautious while sending him messages or commenting on his profile page”. Contrary examples also exist in Turkey. Because of family pressure, many young women do not share their love affairs in social networking sites. Gül says, “I do not want my mom, dad and my brother to know about my boyfriend.” Social media as a space for love Social media can also serve as an alternative and complementary space for maintaining intimate relationships. Intimate relationships not only exist in

physical space, but also in digital space. Atiye and her husband work a lot and can not see each other all day long. They communicate via SMS and the internet. She says that Facebook and Twitter help them to learn in which mood they are and keep alive their relationships. In other cases, social media can be a tool to find a new partner. In Turkish traditional culture, flirt is not allowed, especially for women, and marriage is generally taken place with family members’ approval (izdivaç). Mothers play a vital role to choose brides and grooms. With the modernization, flirting and marriage became a matter of personal choice. Other aspect of social networking sites is that they allow women and men to get into old but also new social circles of friends or acquaintances. Social media functions as a reference system in which individuals can easily find other people using who share similar interests and lifestyle with them. In this sense, social media make easier to build relationships. One of the reasons of this easiness is communicating without physical presence. Individuals who can not express themselves clearly in face-to-face communication may hide behind the screen to express their thoughts and feelings in digital space without being interrupted by the frontiers of body. Nevertheless Illouz, sociologist of emotions, does not agree with this statement and she argues that emotions and especially love belongs to the body (2011:113). Another change in romantic relationships is related to the fact that social media become more and more mobile, and it creates a feeling that couples can communicate with each other whenever or wherever they want. This feeling is as you put your partner in your pocket. As love becomes mobile, couples develop new strategies of attachment and escape. Flexibility in the postmodern era creates flexible attachments between people. Social media are tools used for managing our relationships, attaching to others but also separate from them. Accelerated end of love Social media are fairly cheap communication tools. One of my male students who has recently left her lover tells about his story: “We bought a price list of X telecom operator in order to communicate cheaper. We were living in different cities. In a couple of months, we had problems, we were talking on the phone even in the toilet! We engage in many quarrels and we lost our mutual respect to each other. Our relationship ended on the phone before we met face-to-face”. Today’s relationships last until Facebook separates us. Intimate relationships may be consumed in digital platforms due to the extreme use of social media. Cheap or free communication tools may become main communication tool in some relationships encouring individuals to be more open. Sümeyye, 24 years-old, who dates with a boy for more

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than 6 years, says, “I never added him as a friend in Facebook and I will never do that. Because our relationship may be ruined.” She chooses “not to add him” as a tactic in order to save her relationship. Glossy identities and love performance One of the important features of social media is encouraging internet users to exhibit an “identity performance” (Goffman). In this media, we “waxen” our identities as we wish. Many field researches showed that most social media users express their positive characteristics, personal or social achievements and how much they accommodate with social norms and values; and they wish to be liked in return. Using Goffman terminology, we can argue that our social media profiles constitute shop window of our identities. Many couples present a love performance in social media scene. Technological potential of Web 2.0 and its multimedia characteristic constitute the tools of this love performance. Lover’s discourse also changes: sharing one Facebook account, uploading photographs, sharing love songs, poems, love quotes in profile pages, shooting or posting video clips about love etc. compose new activities of couples. Their intimate relationships immigrate into digital space from physical space and become a theatrical performance. Couples play a “love scene” in front of their friends on social media. Thus, love discourse also changes. Love and intimate relationship become a fact to be approved by others. When there is a problem between couples, silence remains, the relationship status turns from “in a relationship into “single”, man or woman share their frustrations with their friends in social media or they share indirect and allegoric message for each other. Love under surveillance “At the beginning of our relationship, I said “You have two choices. Me or Facebook. Then, I’ve got all his passwords, Facebook, Twitter, e-mail etc. Every day I visit my profile page as well as my boyfriend’s. If he added a new girl and if she is not from our school or his family, I remove her from his friends’ list”. It seems that Elif, 23 years-old college student is proud of herself for controlling totally her boyfriend’s private life. Many interviewers confessed that they regularly checked in their girlfriends’ and boyfriends’ profile pages throughout the day. According to Giddens, who introduced the notions of “plastic sexuality” and “pure relationship” into the social sciences terminology, modern couples keep an eye on each other’s behaviours in order to see if they can produce enough satisfaction for each other(2008:282). Giddens

argues that surveillance is one of the conditions to maintain a pure relationship. Social media replace the eye in intimate relationships. Even, peeping at lover’s profile becomes a part of the daily routine. Alongside the state and capital groups’ surveillance, a new surveillance appears: Surveillance becomes individualized, normalized with social media. Şerif Mardin emphasizes the role of the eye in traditional neighborhood culture in Turkey. Peeping at each other’s lives is a component of the community culture and it functions as aglue in human relationships (Mardin, 2008:103). In today’s societies, surveillance is mediated; and social media replace neighbours’ eyes. On the other hand, social media can make things more complicated causing suspicion, jealousy and even romantic breakups. Especially, digital natives use social media as a tool of surveillance and to control their partners. For example, sharing with each other their passwords of their e-mail, Twitter or Facebook accounts may be considered as a sign of fidelity among my college students. They often make quarrels on what they share or whom they talk to, they become addicted to social networking sites visiting their partner’s profile page every day. One of the main questions of this study will be “Does the immigration of romance from physical space into digital space nourishes or weakens romantic relationships?” At this point, it would be interesting to investigate what strategies develop couples in order to maintain their relationships. Underground relationships Social media also helps women and men to make a new circle of friends, to enter into new social milieux. As we mentioned above, the frontiers of this social milieux may be determined by social media users with privacy settings. With the rise of social media, partner choices increases, “underground relationships” (online cheating) become widespread, individuals who believe that their relationship are boring, or when a sole partner can not satisfy them, or if they are antisocial may use social media as an alternative, a cheaper and a risk free partner-finding tool. Social media give us tools to show our lifestyles; so it becomes easier to find a partner who shares similar lifestyle. Social media facilitates to see how much we match with the potential lover, and at what points we differentiate from him or her. By gazing at his/her sharing, profile, timeline, I enter into his/her world. What values and norms does he or she believe in? What discourses does he or she employ? How does he or she present himself or herself? How do these values coincide with my own values? On the other hand, margin of error can be higher than face-toface communication as individuals display “idealized identities” in social media (Zhao, Grasmuck & Martin, 2008: 1817-1818). In some cases, social media can be used like a band-aid, a source of emotional support, even they create dependence such a drug or alco-

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hol dependence. Many relationships are consumed in social media without meeting face-to-face. Thus, the use of technology in such relationships comes into prominence. The rhythm of online relationships depends on strategies such as being online, waiting for him or her to be online, sending the first message, chatting a couple of hours, ending conversation and restarting again etc. Social media protect couples “from breaking the spell” happened when they meet face-to-face. Individuals use social media as a cheaper tool in order to satisfy their emotional and recognition needs that they can not get in their real lives. In social media emotions become viral. However, according to Bauman, virtual relationships are fragile: “On the contrary of “real relationships”, being in and leaving “virtual relationships” seem to be fashionable and elegant, they are user-friendly when compared to dry, slow, solid and complicated “serious things” (2007:7). Removing someone from friends’ list may be seen as an effective tactic without arguing. Digital violence Last year, a Turkish woman who was living in Kartal (Istanbul) was killed by her unemployed husband because she created a Facebook account. Of course, we can not generalize this extreme example. However, violent acts gain a new dimension with the use of social media in a country such as Turkey in which social violence and especially violence against women are BIBLIOGRAPHY

widespread. A new category of violence requires to be analyzed alongside physical, emotional or sexual violence: digital violence. Digital violence constitutes the dark side of the computer-mediated-communication and will be evaluated in this research. Six months ago, I eavesdropped on two women’s dialogue in the street: “Have you deactivated your facebook account?” “Yes, because I’m engaged”. Women have to limit their social surroundings because “his man” does not want her to be social or to talk to other men. Many interviewers confessed that their partners frequently ask them following questions: “ Whom do you talk to ?” “Why did you add this boy/ girl?”, “Why did this boy/girl comment on your photo?”. The acts of digital violence can vary from controlling his/her mailboxes or social media messages, sending abusive messages, put his or her nose into his/her social media accounts, enforcing him or her to deactivate his/her account etc. In this paper, I tried to discuss the transformations that social media use make on the perceptions of intimacy among internet users and what strategies they develop in this new social communication world. I think that I will have more detailed and precise information as the project develops. My next step will be to enrich theoretical readings and complete in-depth interviews with 50-100 people.

Aşk ve Doğu,

Doğu Batı Dergisi, Sayı:26, Şubat, Mart, Nisan 2004.

BAUMAN

Zygmunt, Akışkan Aşk, İnsan İlişkilerinin Kırılganlığına Dair, çev. Işık Ergüden, Versus Kitap, İstanbul, 2009

BECK Ulrich &

BECK-GERNSHEIM Elisabeth, The Normal Chaos of Love, Translated by Mark Ritter & Jane Wiebel, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1999.

GIDDENS

Anthony, Sosyoloji, Kırmızı Yayınevi, İstanbul, 2008

GIDDENS

Anthony,The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love & Eroticism in Modern Societies, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1993.

ILLOUZ Eva,

Soğuk Yakınlıklar, Duygusal Kapitalizmin Şekillenmesi, Çev. Özge Çağlar Aksoy, İletişim Yayınları, 2011.

LERMONTOV,

Zamanımızın Bir Kahramanı, çev. Servet Lunel, Sosyal Yayınlar, 2011.

ÇAKIR, Ruşen,

Mahalle Baskısı, Doğan Kitap, İstanbul, 2008.

PAPACHARISSI Zizi, “The Virtual Sphere 2.0: The Internet, the Public Sphere and beyond.” Handbook of Internet Politics, Andrew Chadwick & Philip Howard (Eds.), Taylor & Francis, 2008. ZHAO Sjanyang, GRASMUCK Sherri ve MARTIN Jason, “Identity construction on Facebook: Digital empowerment in anchord relationships”, Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 24, No. 5, Eylül 2008, s.1816-1836.

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Socio-Cultural Interaction and Networking: an Italian Experience Sveva Avveduto [email protected], CNR-IRPPS: National Research Council, Institute for Studies on Population and Social Policies, Rome, Italy Fabio Fornasari [email protected], NABA: New Fine Arts Academy, Milan, Italy ABSTRACT Considering interaction and participation as a pre-requisite for democracy is a must. But the equation: -web participation equals democratic total involvment- is far from being fully true and widespread. We anyway welcome the socio-cultural interactions and networking opportunities given to citizens to link them both to their local environment and to the wide community. The paper presents the first results and the theory behind the ‘MuseoDiffuso’ Project (Widespread Museum), a user generated content process activated to give birth to a cultural outcome in a UE Convergence area in Italy. The implementation of a ‘cultural device’, at the same time new as non existing before and old as a museum, has been the working ground to test our theoretical aim to reverse the usual path of a museum adopting new media, and create a different one: sharing the creation of a Widespread museum through new media. The ‘MuseoDiffuso’ project intends to link citizens, municipality, architect, scientists and stimulate their interaction. People have been involved through new media opportunities, in all the preliminary steps of analysis of the territory, historic and environmental aspects in order to finish up in building the collection to be set up as a widesperad museum. The work is still in progress but the aim is to end up not in the traditional opening of a virtual museum to public, but to set up a new concept of collecting and presenting artifacts. The chosen site in Southern Italy has a very high potential, interesting objects and a system of artifacts of very ancient origins. It has at the same time a lively community and many different associations that have been involved, although the digital divide is still quite wide, and this constitutes an additional challenge to the Project. The web generated content is managed by those who will actually build the Museum and constantly report either to the Municipality and to the end users/producers. We believe that the potential of this experience is very high and that it coul be a methodology to be applied to different situations, nations and local settings. PATTI REAL AND VIRTUAL: THE PROJECT OF THE WIDESPREAD MUSEUM

This is a story about a project, people and events closely related to the size of the net, on opportunities and motivations that ruled the game from the very beginning. We are talking about people who have participated, met and made business togheter in social networks, more or less immersive, that have experienced very diverse forms of participation and sharing. The occasion was initially the attendance at Second Life and in particular the joining in a group of people who

partecipate in a network called UnAcademy that used to meet in Second Life and promote initiatives – such as courses in journalism and governance, meetings with the national policy representatives and so on. This experience grew at a later stage with Kublai project with the scope to set up a network to bring together the different forms of creativity to launch start-ups and business activity.

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The condition to make it happen arose around this idea: to retrieve an historic literary coffee shop (called Caffè Galante), which in the early decades of last century was attended in the city of Patti in Sicily, by intellectuals such as the writer Salvatore Quasimodo. The project Caffè Galante starts with a clear objective that works on several levels: first to become once again a place of cultural promotion and discussion, open to the net and “contamination” emanating from it, which, thanks to technology, allows the locals to meet people or groups of people in distant places by facilitating the exchange of experiences and discussion on issues of mutual interest. The virtual opening of the Caffè Galante immediately made it a center of interest, it became a square, a node in the network: its virtual double becomes a ‘real’ meeting place. It’s a clear example of the power of the network as versatile and effective tool for interacting. The Caffé, presented as networked device, becomes a means not only to connect distant people, but to increase the knowledge and relationships. The idea has evolved over time assuming different forms in relation to the use of technologies. But how is it that a means – such as the shared digital instrument – made it possible to make an idea, generated by people who met online, became a larger project for the city of Patti? How is it that over time this project has involved an entire citizenry that still is contributing to the better definition and implementation of the project? The network is the way, and the object is the Widespread museum, a museum that comes from a territory and from its life that has developed leaving behind artifacts, objects, works, writings of any kind. It was produced slowly as a project of a museum, gaining its progress step by step. Like a movie in STOP-MOTION each step has been designed, built and followed carefully, with an eye and an ear always open to observe, listen and accept external suggestions. Each move has been characterized by a continuous series of public meetings that followed those with individuals on social networks, on the phone and in person. All decisions on the project were shared and confronted on themes and contents. The museum, after all, is defined as the product of

the area as a place that focuses on its life: the land is the first room of the museum, the first area to be treated as an introduction to the museum. It’s the condition to create in people a different awareness towards the natural environment, cultural and social milieu. It is not working by isolating the works of art from the context, but the aim is to create different narratives always through free exploration of the city. Today, we learned that, if art does not deal with life, it does not interest that a few people. The first step was to build an interest in the city of Patti, to expand knowledge and to create an audience to discuss the content with. Direct meetings were held on-site, followed by many in-depth conversations on the web. Patti and its surroundings are the perfect place to experiment: an area that has been sensitized to the issues of the network. The final issue is an experience on the web to make use of suggestions and observation and, at the same time, to create important building blocks for the future project of Widespread Museum. To know the various places and territories, only guides and maps were used. Today, with photographs included in social networks, we have a different way of observing and mapping the real territories. These mappings contains many more glances, not made objectives by a vertical viewing, but identified as belonging to a person who has loaded them on line. It is not an observation linked to a technology but a collection of visions that tell us about the area and how to be looked at. This also tells us about one aspect: people, from being object of the communication, become subject, and at the same time they inhabit the world through technology. Looking, unlike writing, is an almost automatic action. When we write, the language we use reveals something about us. The way in which we look at, reveals our habits. The camera “used” on line, Flickr and Panoramio, becomes a sort of time machine. Not only we observe what people recognize as their sublime, but there is more, we find the focus of interest, the important places are handed down by the stories, by the habits, local customs that come from ancient times. Observing the images on line allows us to describe the territory and its individual components and to rebuild the relationships between them.

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The next step we took has been to give back to the city and the citizens, the map produced using this interpretation, which becomes part of the project Widespread Museum. This phase ended with an installation-presentation of the project and citizens and socio-cultural associations of the city have been invited to contribute to the evolution of the project itself. The presentation was made ​​throught an installation, made as a real art exhibition, actually a public art installation. Why public art? Because public art, more than any other art, is set to incorporate the public in the very production of the work. The work may function only if used by a public that participates in the very modeling. Public art shifts the focus from the objects to the relationships. The relationships are the subject of the project from the very beginning. At this stage we aim to implement the experimental phase, increasing the possibility of sharing with the city using the tools that the net makes available, and then to give a more explicit ‘wikicratic’ aspect to the work, i.e. inducing people to collaborate constructively on line with the designer to complete the project, through the opening of a dedicated website, the “Laboratory of the Widespread Museum” where individuals and organizations can post their contributions.

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NEW MEDIA USAGE OF UNIVERSITIES: ISTANBUL UNIVERSITY Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ergun YOLCU Istanbul University, School of Communication The Head of Press and PR Departmant of Istanbul University [email protected] twitter.com/ergunyolcu ABSTRACT As the usage of the new media becomes widespread, new media changes the structure and characteristics of the communication. The study focuses on the relationship between the communication and the new media, the importance of the communication for universities. Then study analyzes the structure of the Istanbul University, because Istanbul University’s new media strategy is the case of the study. Finally the study tries to explain the usage of new media by Istanbul University. Keywords: New Media, Universities, Istanbul University

ÖZ

Yeni medyanın kullanımı yaygınlaştığı ölçüde, yeni medya iletişimin yapısını ve özelliklerini değiştirmektedir. Bu çalışma iletişim ile yeni medya arasındaki ilişkiye ve iletişimin üniversiteler için önemine odaklanmaktadır. İstanbul Üniversitesi’nin yeni medyayı kullanım stratejisi çalışmanın ana konusu olduğundan dolayı, çalışmada İstanbul Üniversitesi’nin yapısına da değinilmiştir. Son olarak yeni medyanın İstanbul Üniversitesi tarafından nasıl kullanıldığı açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Anahtar Sözcükler: Yeni Medya, Üniversiteler, İstanbul Üniversitesi THE COMMUNICATION AND THE NEW MEDIA The term communication refers to ‘the act or process of using words, sounds, signs, or behaviors to express or exchange information or to express your ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc., to someone else’ (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ communication).Communication can be both interpersonal, group and mass communication. Communication act is improved by the existence of the technology. Wright and Hinson (2012, p. 2) state “(…) the development of various new technologies has significantly empowered a wide variety of strategic publics by giving them dynamic new media many are using to communicate effectively with a variety of internal and external audiences. The first weblogs, or blogs, appeared more than a dozen years ago. Since then these new communication media have developed into a number of different

forms including text, images, audio and video through the development of forums, message boards, photo sharing, podcasts RSS, (really simple syndication), search engine marketing, video sharing, Wikis, social networks, professional networks and micro-blogging sites.” New media differs from the other communication tools by its structure that lets receivers and senders to give and take feedback about the message immediately. With this characteristic of new media, it convergences to the face-to-face communication. Hence new media allows the sender of the message to be aware of both how many receivers receive the message and how they perceive the message (McQuail, 2010). New media and social media are the terms that they are in touch with. According to Mark Dykeman

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“Social media are the means for any person to: publish digital creative content; provide and obtain real-time feedback via online discussions, commentary and evaluations; and incorporate changes or corrections to the original content” (quoted Wright, Hinson, 2012, p. 2) Before discussing the analysis about social media, it is useful to give some short information. The number of members on Facebook about 717 million. With approximately 30 million Facebook members in Turkey, Turkey stands in the 5th rank in the world. Number of Twitter users in Turkey is approximately 5 million, the number of Turks are using LinkedIn is approximately 630,000. Turkey stands in the 2nd rank in the Europe that watches online video on the websites such as youtube, vimeo, dailymotion. The use of other social networks in Turkey is increasing rapidly. THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE COMMUNICATION The main functions of universities to produce the knowledge and to spread the knowledge to the society as soon as possible. With this aim, universities use their scientific publications such as books, journals and the other mass media instruments. On the other hand universities need to deal with internal and external communication not only for scientific purposes but also as they are institutions that have multi-components, collaborators. Universities can use the new media for external communication that let them to explain their works and plans to other parts of the society, also universities can use the new media for internal communication with the academic and administrative staff, researchers, and the students who are the youngest population of the university community. As the self-websites of the universities, the official accounts of the universities on the other public social media tools such as facebook, twitter, youtube, etc. must be in the context of the analysis. In Turkey there are several universities that use the new media to communicate with the parties that they are contact with. Some of them use the new media to communicate while some of them use it to increase their awareness. ISTANBUL UNIVERSITY AND ITS STRUCTURE Istanbul University is the most long-established

university of the Turkey and one of the most 10 long-established university of the Europa. However, together with the quantitative value of the Istanbul University, it is the one of the biggest universities of Turkey, according the qualitative values –the number of campuses, publication, researches; researchers, academic and administrative staff, and students. This situation can be underlined as an opportunity for university; on the other hand, because of the big structure of the Istanbul University there is a possibility to face difficulties for internal and external communication. Hence the public relation and communication for Istanbul University gain importance for sustainability of its success and improvement. THE USAGE OF NEW MEDIA BY ISTANBUL UNIVERSITY Istanbul University has a web site that enables to achieve the sub links of all the branches that are related to the Istanbul University such as schools, departments, libraries, museums, and all the information that internal parties –academic and administrative staff, researchers and students- may need. This website is broadcasted in Turkish and English so international researchers and students can also get the information that they may need (http://www.istanbul.edu.tr, http://www.istanbul. edu.tr/en/#). The mail addresses of the staff and branches can be found in that website hence the people who need to communicate the academic and administrative staff can find the trusted contact information of them. As mentioned before, the official accounts of the universities on the social media tools such as facebook, twitter, youtube, etc. are important for communication. The usage of social media by university is important for several reasons. Firstly it creates an opportunity for the university to send the message that needed to be send in many channels and immediately. Secondly it enables to collect the feedback and correct the reception of the receivers if there is a misunderstanding. Thirdly it creates trusted channels to communicate with the university in the new media while there is a possibility about fake accounts can broadcast the fake information about the university. Last but not least important case is to be underlined is, the usage of twitter during the Van Earthquake Case. During the rescue operation after the Van Earthquake, the usage of twitter supplies

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the opportunities for a fund drive, also fortunately there is a Research Center in Van that belongs to Istanbul University and students can get information about their families in Van via University’s Research Center in Van via twitter account of the Istanbul University and Rector of the University. With taking account of the importance of the usage of new media the Press and Public Relationship Department of Istanbul University deals with existence and sustainability of new media accounts as it deals with the conventional mass media. For discussing the position of Istanbul University among other Universities in Turkey according to the new media usage, the usage of new media by other universities must be also analyzed. Only 21 of the 106 state universities that are examined within the study (20 percent) use at least one social media channels as corporate. When we look at many private foundation universities, 40 of 55 (73 percent) of them use at least one social media channel. The ratio between the private foundation universities and state universities seems to be very obvious difference. The average number of the Facebook followers of the state universities is 1368, while the average number of the private foundation universities is 3737. The average number of followers of private foundation universities are about 3 times of the average number of followers of the state universities. The private foundation universities are using social media as a marketing channel and communication channels with both existing and prospective students. On the other hand private foundation universities are seen to be more open to innovation and development in the internet world, the state universities are seen as continuing the status quo. Of course there can be exceptions, but the average values support this idea. The tables below show the Numbers of Followers of State Universities’ and Private Foundation Universities’ Facebook and Twitter Accounts. Number of Followers of State Universities’ Facebook Account İstanbul Üniversitesi

15795

İTÜ

14500

Sakarya Üniversitesi

14049

Pamukkale Üniversitesi

6206

Atatürk Üniversitesi

5550

Number of Followers of State Universities’ Twıtter Account İstanbul Üniversitesi

4243

İTÜ

3118

Sakarya Üniversitesi

1982

Pamukkale Üniversitesi

1529

Atatürk Üniversitesi

815

Number of Followers of Private Foundation Universities’ Twitter Accounts Bilkent Üniversitesi(The Twitter Account of the Rector)

7363

Yeditepe Üniversitesi

5535

Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi

5009

İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi

4064

İstanbul Şehir Üniversitesi

2002

Number of Followers of Private Foundation Universities’ Facebook Accounts Zirve Üniversitesi

26035

Okan Üniversitesi

24972

Gazikent Üniversitesi

19545

Özyeğin Üniversitesi

14572

Kemerburgaz Üniversitesi

9539

The IU Rector- Prof. Dr. Yunus Söylet Twitter Account Number of Followers

9764

CONCLUSION Since the usage of the new media becomes widespread, new media is changing the structure and characteristics of the communication. The study focuses on the relationship between the communication and the new media, the importance of the communication for universities. Then study analyzes the structure of the Istanbul University, because Istanbul University’s new media strategy is the case of the study. Finally the study tries to explain the usage of new media by Istanbul University. Istanbul University has a web site that enables to achieve the sub links of all the branches that are related to the Istanbul University such as schools, departments, libraries, museums, and all the information that internal parties –academic and ad-

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ministrative staff, researchers and students- may need. This website is broadcasted in Turkish and English so international researchers and students can also get the information that they may need (http://www.istanbul.edu.tr, http://www.istanbul. edu.tr/en/#). The mail addresses of the staff and branches can be found in that website hence the people who need to communicate the academic and administrative staff can find the trusted contact information of them. The official accounts of the universities on the social media tools such as facebook, twitter, youtube, etc. are important for communication. The usage of social media by university is important for several reasons. Firstly it creates an opportunity for the university to send the message that needed to be send in many channels and immediately. Secondly it enables to collect the feedback and correct the reception of the receivers if there is a misunderstanding. Thirdly it creates trusted channels to communicate with the university in the new media while there is a possibility about fake accounts can broadcast the fake information about the university. Last but not least important case is to be underlined is, the usage of twitter during the Van Earthquake Case. During the rescue operation after the Van Earthquake, the usage of twitter supplies the opportunities for a fund drive, also fortunately there is a Research Center in Van that belongs to Istanbul University and students can get information about their families in Van via University’s Research Center in Van via twitter account of the Istanbul University and Rector of the University. With taking

account of the importance of the usage of new media the Press and Public Relationship Department of Istanbul University deals with existence and sustainability of new media accounts as it deals with the conventional mass media. Finally the main philosophy of using the new media by Istanbul University is to supply an interactive communication with students. We achieved to have direct contacts, one-on-one communication with students via accounts of -, @yunussoylet –the Rector of the Istanbul University-, @ergunyolcu– the Head of the Press and PR Department of the Istanbul University and @istanbuledutr -the corporate accounts and pages. Moreover the Istanbul University uses social media in “Registration Days” and “Preferences Days”. All the messages that were sent to Istanbul University were answered by the staff of Press of PR Department of Istanbul University, also these messages are accepted as feedbacks so they are become useful for deciding and planning the policies about the University. With 4243 followers in Twitter and 15795 followers in Facebook, Istanbul University is the one of the most active University in Turkey, and the most active state University in Turkey.

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BIBLIGRAPHY “Communication”

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communication

Istanbul University.

http://www.istanbul.edu.tr/ http://www.istanbul.edu.tr/en/#

McQuail. (2010)

McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, London; Thousand Oaks, Calif. : Sage.

McNair. (2002).

New Technologies and Media, in The Media: An Introduction, Briggs and Cobley (Ed.), Edinburgh: Pearson, 180-191.

Wright, Hinson. (2012).

Examining How Social and Emerging Media Have Been Used in Public Relations Between 2006 and 2012: A Longitudinal Analysis http://www.prsa.org/intelligence/prjournal/documents/2012wrighthinson. pdf

Yolcu. (2012)

Geleceğe Yön Veren Dünya Üniversitesi 2009-2012, Istanbul: Boyut.

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